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FURNITURE 


>    ) 

»    * 


High  Case  of  Drawers,  Mahogany 
with  Brass  Mounts 

Metropolitan  Museum 


FURNITURE 

^ESTHER   SINGLETON 

Author  of  ^^ French  and  English  Furniture,'' 
^^ Dutch  and  Flemish  Furniture^'  etCy  etc. 


»  ^  '»'**»  »* 


»  »    »  * 


NEW   YORK 

DUFFIELD  &  COMPANY 
191 1 


3£r 


Copyright,  191 1| 
By  DuFFiKLD  &  CoMPAinr 


.••-  r  •/• :  .  •  • 


THE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS,  CAMBRIDGE,  U.S.A. 


CONTENTS 

I.  Styles  and  Schools i 

II.  The  Chest,  Armoire,  Dressoir,  Court-Cupboard, 
Sideboard,  Buffet,  Cabinet,  Commode,  Bureau, 
Desk 95 

III.  The  Bed 149 

IV.  Seats 174 

V.  The  Table 216 

VI.  Mirrors,  Screens,  Clocks 239 

Index 255 


241220 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


High  Case  of  Drawers,  Mahogany  with  Brass  Mounts, 

Eighteenth  Century Frontispiece 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Facing  page 

Plate  I.  Bahut,  Fourteenth  Century  ....         8 

Cluny  Museum. 

Plate  II.  Tilting  Chest,  Fifteenth  Century     .       10 

Cluny  Museum. 

Plate  III.  Gothic  Settle 12 

Nuremberg  Museum. 

Plate  IV.  Gothic  Bedstead 14 

Munich  Museum. 

Plate  V.  Gothic  Bedstead 16 

Nuremberg  Museum. 

Plate  VI.  Gothic  Press  from  the  Tyrol   (about 

1500) 18 

Nuremberg  Museum. 

Plate  VII.  Gothic    Cupboard    with    Linenfold 

Panels 20 

Nuremberg  Museum. 

Plate  VIII.  Gothic  Credence  (French)      ....       22 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  IX.  Gothic  Chairs 24 

Munich  Museum. 
vii 


List  of  Illustrations 

Facing  page 

Plate  X.  Bedstead,  dated  1530,  owned  by  the 

Princess  Palatine  Susanna  ...       26 

Munich  Museum. 

Plate  XL  Italian  Renaissance  Chest     ....       28 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  XII.  Burgundian  Dressoir  (1570)  ....       30 

Plate  XIII.  Carved  Bedstead,  Francois  I.    .    .    .       32 

Cluny  Museum. 

Plate  XIV.  Armoire  He  de  France.      Middle  of 

Sixteenth  Century 34 

Plate  XV.  Chair,  Lyonnais,  Sixteenth  Century       36 

Plate  XVI.  Carved  Oak  Court-Cupboard,  Tudor 

Period      38 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  XVII.  Court,  or  Press,  Cupboard,  American 

(1680-1690) 40 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  XVIII.  Seventeenth  Century  Chairs,  Italian, 

Carved  and  Gilt 42 

Parma  Museum. 

Plate  XIX.  Seventeenth      Century     Arm-chair 

Covered  with  Cordovan  Leather       44 
Lucca.  . 

Plate  XX.  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Century 

Venetian  and  Roman  Chairs  and 
a  Tyrolean  Stool  {escarbeau)    .    .       46 
Museo  Civico,  Milan. 

Plate  XXL  Jacobean  Court-Cupboard    ....       48 

Metropolitan  Museum, 
viii 


Plate  XXII. 

Plate  XXIII. 
Plate  XXIV. 

Plate  XXV. 


Plate  XXVI. 
Plate  XXVII. 

Plate  XXVIII. 
Plate  XXIX. 

Plate  XXX. 
Plate  XXXI. 
Plate  XXXII. 
Plate  XXXIII 


List  of  Illustrations 

Facing  page 
Marquetry    Writing-Desk,    Chinese 

Designs,  Queen  Anne 50 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

The  same  (open) 52 

High  Case  of  Drawers,  Lacquered, 

1730-1740 54 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Louis  XIV.   Arm-chair  Covered  with 

Genoa  Velvet 56 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Chaise    Confessionale,   Transitional 
from  Louis  XIV.  to  Regency 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Commode  by  Andre-Charles  Boulle  .       58 

Wallace  Gallery. 

Mahogany  and  Gilt  Mirror.  Marot 

Style 60 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Show-table.  William  and  Mary    .    .       62 
Metropolitan  Museum. 

Chest  of  Drawers  on  Stand,  Anglo- 
Dutch  64 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Anglo-Dutch  Chairs 66 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Louis  XV.    Encoignure  and   Lady's 

Work-table 68 

Louis  XV.  Arm-chair 70 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Chippendale  Arm-chair 72 

iz 


List  of  Illustrations 

Facing  page 

Plate  XXXIV.         Chippendale  Three-back  Settee  74 

Plate  XXXV.  Louis  XVI.  Chairs 76 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  XXXVI.         Louis   XVI.    Commode,   by   Benne- 

man 78 

Plate  XXXVII.       Adam  Console-table  and  Top   ...       80 

Plate  XXXVIII.     Heppelwhite    Desk   with    Tambour 

Shutters 82 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  XXXIX.         Sideboard  in  the  Style  of  Shearer    .       84 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  XL.  Heppelwhite  and  Sheraton  Chairs    .       86 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  XLI.                Sheraton  Dwarf  Cabinet  and  Top  .    .       88 
Plate  XLII.  Sheraton  Chairs 90 

Plate  XLIII.  Empire  Chairs 92 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  XLIV.  Table  and  Chair  by  Duncan  Phyffe, 
owned  by  Mr.  R.  T.  Haines 
Halsey,  New  York 94 

Plate  XLV.  Carved   Oak   Chest.   Early   French 

Renaissance  (about  1500)    ...       96 

English   Transitional   Chest   (about 
1500) 
Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  XL VI.  Sixteenth  Century  Italian  Marriage 

Coffer 98 

Cluny  Museum. 

Z 


Plate  XLVII. 

Plate  XLVIII. 
Plate  XLIX. 
Plate  L. 

Plate  LI. 

Plate  LII. 
Plate  LIII. 

Plate  LIV. 

Plate  LV. 

Plate  LVI. 
Plate  LVIL 

Plate  LVIII. 

Plate  LIX. 


List  of  Illustrations 

Facing  page 
Sixteenth  Century  Italian  Marriage 

Coffer  100 

Louvre. 

Sixteenth   Century    Carved    Chest, 

Lyonnais 102 

Armoire,  Lyonnais.  End  of  Sixteenth 

Century 104 

Seventeenth    Century   Kas,  or   Ar- 

moire,  from  South  Germany    .    .      106 
Metropolitan  Museum. 

Seventeenth   Century   Kas,   or  Ar- 

moire,  Dutch      108 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Low-boy,  Lacquered 110 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Double  Chest  of  Drawers,  or  Chest- 

upon-chest.  Mahogany 112 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Seventeenth   Century   Carved    Oak 

Cupboard 114 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Court-Cupboard  with  Applied  Orna- 
ments, Jacobean 116 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Shearer  Sideboard,  1748 118 

Sheraton  Sideboard  and  Sideboard 

Designed  by  Heppelwhite    ...      120 

Seventeenth  Century  Spanish  Cabi- 
net (varguenos) 122 

Seventeenth  Century  carved  Ebony 

Secretary 124 

Louvre. 

xi 


List  of  Illustrations 

Facing  fagi 

Plate  LX.  Eighteenth  Century  Italian  Carved 

and  Gilt  Cabinet  on  Stand  .    .    .     126 

Lucca. 

Eighteenth  Century  English  Carved 
and  Gilt  Cabinet  on  Stand 

Plate  LXI.  Eighteenth  Century  English  Painted 

Cabinet  on  Stand 128 

Plate  LXIL  Late  Louis  XV.  Encoignure,  or  Cor- 
ner Cabinet 130 

Plate  LXIIL  Louis    XV.     Commode ^    signed    L. 

Boudin 132 

Plate  LXIV.  Regency  Bureau  made  for  Louis  XV.     134 

Plate  LXV.  Louis  XV.  Bureau-commode  with 
Bronze-gilt  Ornamentation  and 
Leaf-shoes 136 

Chippendale  Bureau-commode 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  LXVL  Louis    XVL   Half-Moon  Commode, 

made  by  L.  Moreau 138 

Plate  LXVIL  Bureau  of  Marie  de'Medici  ....     140 

Cluny  Museum. 

Plate  LXVIIL         Bureau  by  Riesener 142 

Wallace  Gallery. 

Plate  LXIX.  Eighteenth  Century  American  Desk 

and  Bookcase 144 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  LXX.  Louis    XVL    Secretary,    Mahogany 

with  Bronze-gilt  Ornamentation      146 

Plate  LXXL  Empire  Secretary 148 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

xii 


List  of  Illustrations 

Facing  page 
Dutch  Renaissance  Carved  Oak  Bed- 
stead with  Painted  Leather  Ceil- 
ing (1650) 150 

Metropolitan  Museum 

Early  Seventeenth  Century  Bed- 
stead {Lit-en-housse) 152 

Corsini  Palace,  Florence. 

LXXIV.  Bed  of  the  Marechal  d'Effiat     ...     154 

Cluny  Museum. 

LXXV.          Eighteenth  Century  American  Bed- 
stead     156 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Louis  XVL  Bedstead,  Gilt  Frame 
with  Tapestry  Panels  and  Cur- 
tains of  White  Silk 158 

LXXVIL        Empire  Bedstead 160 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

LXXVIII.      Sixteenth    Century    Italian    Choir 

Stalls 162 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Sixteenth  Century  Flemish  Arm- 
chairs   164 

Louvre. 

Sixteenth  Century  Chairs,  Flemish, 

Covered  with  Leather 166 

Cluny  Museum. 

French,  Carved  Chairs 

Louvre. 

Swiss  Sgabello 
Metropolitan  Museum, 

Italian  Folding-chair 
Cluny  Museum. 

xiii 


Plate  LXXIL 

Plate  LXXIII 

Plate 
Plate 

Plate  LXXVI 

Plate 
Plate 

Plate  LXXIX. 

Plate  LXXX. 


List  of  Illustrations 

Facing  page 
Plate  LXXXI.         Seventeenth  Century  Italian  Chairs 

and  Sgabello 168 

Palazzo  Mansi,  Lucca. 

Plate  LXXXII.  Seventeenth  Century  Chairs,  Flemish, 
Covered  with  Leather,  "Spanish 
Foot;"  Carved  Oak  or  Wainscot 
Chair  170 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  LXXXIII.  Corner  Chair  with  Rush  Seat  and 
Spanish  Foot;  "Low-leather," 
Flemish,     Carved     Oak,      1670; 

Turned   Chair 172 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  LXXXIV.      Anglo-Dutch  Crown-back  Chair,  Cab- 
riole-legs and  Hoof-feet;  Leather 
Chair  with  Spanish  Feet      ...      174 
Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  LXXXV.        Anglo-Dutch     Chairs    and    Double 

Chair,  or  Settee 176 

Plate  LXXXVL      Windsor  Chairs ;  Anglo-Dutch  Chairs ; 
American  "Colonial,"  Three  Bar 
or  Banister  Back  with  Rush  Seat     178 
Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  LXXXVIL  Seventeenth  Century  Lit  de  Rfpos; 
Early  Eighteenth  Century  Fold- 
ing-chair       180 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  LXXXVIIL  Regency  Arm-chair,  Covered  with 
Tapestry  and  Chaise  Confes- 
sionale 184 

Metropolitan  Museum 

xiv 


List  of  Illustrations 

Plate  LXXXIX.      Louis  XV.  5^rg^>^  Facing  page 

Louis  XV.  Gondola  Chairs  with  Cane 

Seats  and  Backs 186 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  XC.  Louis  XV.  Bergere;  Cane  Chairs;  Up- 

holstered Chairs  and  Arm-chair     188 
Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  XCL  Louis  XVL  Chairs;  Medallion  Backs 

Covered  withTapes  try;  Lyre-back 
Voyeuse;  and  Lyre-back  Chair  .      190 

Plate  XCIL  Louis  XV.  Canape^  Covered  with 
Beauvais  Tapestry;  Louis  XV. 
Arm-chair 192 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  XCIIL  Eighteenth     Century    Ladder-back 

Chairs      194 

Plate  XCIV.  Chippendale  Chairs 196 

Plate  XCV.  Chippendale  Chairs 198 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  XCVL  Chippendale  Three-back  Settee, 
Mahogany,  Covered  with  Mort- 
lake  Tapestry 200 

Plate  XCVIL  Chippendale  Settee,  Mahogany,  Cov- 
ered with  Needlework 202 

Plate  XCVIIL         Adam  Chairs 204 

Plate  XCIX.  Heppelwhite  Shield-back  Chairs  .    .     206 

Plate  C.  Sheraton  Four-back  Settee,  Cane-seat     208 

Plate  CL  Early  Nineteenth  Century  Chairs     .     210 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

XV 


List  of  Illustrations 

Facing  page 
Plate  CII.  Nineteenth  Century  Chairs  by 

George  Smith  (1804-1810)  ...     212 

Plate  CIII.  Trafalgar  Chair  and  Chair  by  Dun- 

can Phyffe,  owned  by  Mr.  R.  T. 
Haines  Halsey,  New  York  ...     214 

Plate  CIV.  Sixteenth   Century   Flemish   Table, 

Table  a  rhentail  (Sambin  School)     216 

Plate  CV.  Gate-legged  Table 218 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  CVI.  Gate-legged  Table  and  Oval  Table  .     220 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  CVII.  BouUe  Table 222 

Wallace  Gallery. 

Plate  CVIII.  Sideboard-table,  William  and  Mary 
Period;  OakDining-table;  Seven- 
teenth Century  English  Dressing- 
tables  224 

Plate  CIX.  Regency  Console-table 226 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Louis  XV.  Console-table 

Louvre. 

Plate  CX.  Louis  XV.  Lady's  Tables,  Marquetry 

of  Colored  Woods;  Louis  XV. 
Table  with  Panels  of  Lattice- 
work;   Louis  XV.  Writing-table 

and  Serre-papiers      228 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  CXL                Chippendale  Sideboard-table;  Chip- 
pendale Pier-table 230 

xvi 


List  of  Illustrations 

Facing  page 
Plate  CXII.  Eighteenth  Century  Tables:  Mahog- 
any Tea-table  "Tip  and  Turn" 
with  "Pie-crust"  Edge;  Mahog- 
any "Drop-leaf"  Table;  Chip- 
pendale Tea-table  with  Pierced 
Gallery;  Chippendale  Tea-table 
with  Pierced  Gallery 232 

Plate  CXIII.  Mahogany  Card-table;  Mahogany 
Writing-desk;  Mahogany  Dumb- 
waiter; Mahogany  Spoon  and 
Knife  Boxes 234 

Plate  CXIV.  Heppelwhite  Pembroke  Table   and 

Empire  Console-table 236 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  CXV.  Sixteenth  Century  Italian  Mirror    .     240 

Cluny  Museum. 

Plate  CXVI.  Chippendale  Gilt  Mirror  Frames; 
Chippendale  Walnut  and  Gilt 
Frame;  American  Gilt  Frame 
Mirror  (1800-1825) 244 

Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  CXVII.  Louis  XIV.  Screen,  Gilt  Frame  and 

Tapestry 248 

Cluny  Museum. 

Louis  XV.  Screen,  Gilt  Frame  and 
Tapestry;    Pole-screen,   Mahog- 
any and  Needlework 
Metropolitan  Museum. 

Plate  CXVIIL         Chippendale  Clock 250 

Plate  CXIX.  Boulle    Clock    and    Pedestal,  late 

Louis  XIV.  to  Regency     .   .    .     252 
Wallace  Gallery. 
xvii 


TEXT  CUTS 


PAGE 


1.  Egyptian  Chairs 2 

2.  Greek  Chairs,  Tables  and  Stools 2 

3.  Roman  Couch  of  Bronze 3 

4.  Chair  of  St.  Peter,  Rome 4 

5.  Carved  Oak  Seat  with  Movable  Back-rest,  Fifteenth 

Century 6 

6.  Prie-Dieu  Chair,  Fifteenth  Century 9 

7.  Spanish  Chair,  Wood  and  Ivory  Inlaid,  about  1500  11 

8.  German  Table,  about  1500 15 

9.  English  Carved  Oak  Bedstead,  Sixteenth  Century    .  24 

10.  Venetian   Chair,    1500,   and   Flemish  Chair  by  De 

Vries,  1560 27 

11.  Bed  by  Abraham  Bosse 29 

12.  Chair-table,  Seventeenth  Century 35 

13.  Canape  Confident,  by  Radel,  1765 57 

14.  Louis  XV.  Bedstead 60 

15.  Chippendale  Chair-back,  by  Chippendale,  1754    .    .  64 

16.  Chippendale  Chair-back,  by  Chippendale,  1754     .    .  67 

17.  Sofa  by  Lalonde 71 

18.  Pole-screen  by  Adam 75 

19.  Sheraton  Chair-back 79 

20.  Directoire  Chair,  1793 .  81 

21.  Empire  Sofa      84 

22.  American  Fancy  Chair,  1810 85 

xviii 


Text  Cuts 

PAGE 

23.  Mendienne,  1820 89 

24.  Dressing-room  Commode,  1826 93 

25.  French  Z^r^jjoiV,  Fifteenth  Century 110 

26.  Egyptian  Couches 149 

27.  Greek  Bedstead 150 

28.  Anglo-Saxon  Beds,  Tenth  Century 151 

29.  Iron  Bedstead,  Tenth  Century 152 

30.  Bed  of  the  Twelfth  Century 153 

31.  Lit  de  Camp  by  Radel,  1765 162 

32.  Lit  a  TomheaUj  Louis  XV 163 

Z3.     Heppelwhite  Bed,  1788 165 

34.  Lit  a  Tulipe,  Empire  Style 169 

35.  Bed  by  Sheraton,  1803 170 

36.  Sofa  Bed,  Empire  Style 172 

37.  Assyrian  Seats 174 

38.  Ebony  Seat  Inlaid  with   Ivory,  and  Folding-stool, 

Egyptian 175 

39.  Roman  Chair  and  Stool      177 

40.  Carved  Wood  Chair,  Scandinavian,  Twelfth  to  Thir- 

teenth Century 179 

41.  English  Chair,  Fifteenth  Century 181 

42.  Fifteenth  Century  Chair 183 

43.  Flemish  Low  Leather  Chair,  Chaise  Caquetoire,  Seven- 

teenth Century 186 

44.  German  Chair-back,  1750 193 

45.  Fauteuil  de  Bureau^  by  Lalonde 194 

46.  Voyelle  from  Fontainebleau 196 

47.  Chippendale  Chair-back,  1754 197 

48.  Chippendale  Chair-back,  1754 198 

49.  Chippendale  Chair-back,  1754 198 

six 


Text  Cuts 


PAGE 


50.  Chippendale  Chair-back,  1754 200 

51.  Directoire  Chair,  1796 207 

52.  Easy-chair  with  Adjustable  Back,  by  Smith    ....  209 

53.  Chaise  a  Volutes,  Restoration  Period 210 

54.  Vis-d-viSj  or  Siamoise,  by  Lalonde 211 

55.  Fauteuil  a  Voltaire 212 

56.  Causeuse,  1840 212 

57.  Chaise  confortable,"  Spanischery**  1S53 213 

58.  Confident  a  trois  places,  or  Siamoise 213 

59.  Pouf 214 

60.  Fauteuil  a  Coiffer,  1850 214 

61.  French  Chair,  1850 214 

62.  Chaise  Confortable,  by  DevIUiers,  1838 215 

63.  Roman  Table 216 

64.  Greek  Table      216 

65.  Anglo-Saxon  Table 217 

66.  German  Table,  Fifteenth  Century 218 

67.  Cornice  for  Window  Drapery,  by  Adam 245 

68.  Chippendale  Pole-screen 250 


FURNITURE 


STYLES    AND    SCHOOLS 

The  Egyptian  Style;  the  Greek  Style;  the  Roman  Style;  the  By- 
2;^NTiNE  Style;  the  RoMANEsguE  Style;  the  Gothic  Style;  Louis 
Xil.  Style;  IIenri  II.  Style;  the  English  Renaissance:  the 
Flemish  Renaissance;  the  Spanish  Renaissance;  Louis  XIII.  Style; 
the  Rubens  Style;  ire  Genre  AuriculairE;  the  Jacobean  Period; 
Oriental  Influences;  Louis  XIV.  Style;  Regency  ^yle;  the 
Style  Repugie;  the  Queen^Anije  Style;  the  Anglo-Dutch  Style; 
Louis  XV.  Style;  the  Chippendale  Style;  Louis  XVL  Style;  the 
Adam  Style;  the  Heppexwhixe  Style;  Thomas  Shearer;  the  Sher- 
AXOJS  Style;  the  Directoire  Style;  the  Empole  Style;  the  Nine- 
teenth Century  Styles. 

The  Egyptian  Style 

THE  Egyptian  style  had  a  great  deal  of  influence 
on  Greek  and  Etruscan  Art.  Though  the  house- 
hold furniture  of  the  Egyptians  was  somewhat 
limited,  the  cabinet-makers  produced  beautiful  inlaid  work 
at  a  very  early  period.  Egypt  was  poor  in  timber,  and 
therefore  cedar  and  other  woods  were  imported  and  ebony 
and  ivory  were  procured  from  Ethiopia  and  Mesopotamia. 
Human  and  animal  forms,  as  well  as  floral  devices,  were 
used  for  the  decoration  of  furniture,  which  was  adorned 
with  brilliant  color  designs.  The  wood  was  sometimes  gilded 
and  sometimes  inlaid  with  precious  metals,  stones  and  colored 
glass. 

"  For  furniture,  various  woods  were  employed,  ebony, 


Furniture 

acacia  or  sont,  cedar,  sycamore,  and  others  of  species  not 
determined.  Ivory,  both  of  hippopotamus  and  elephant,  was 
used  for  inlaying,  as  also  were  glass  pastes;  and  specimens 
of  marquetry  are  not  uncommon.  In  the  paintings  in  the 
tombs,  gorgeous  pictures  and  gilded  furniture  are  depicted. 
For  cushions  and  mattresses,  linen 
cloth  and  colored  stufifs,  filled  with 
feathers  of  the  waterfowl,  appear  to 
have  been  used,  while  seats  have  plaited 
bottoms  of  linen  cord  or  tanned  and 
EGYPTIAN  cHAms  ^X^^  Icathcr  thrown  over  them,  and 
sometimes  the  skins  of  panthers  served 
this  purpose.  For  carpets  they  used  mats  of  palm  fibre,  on 
which  they  often  sat.  On  the  whole,  an  Egyptian  house  was 
lightly  furnished,  and  not  encumbered  with  so  many  articles 
as  are  in  use  at  the  present  day."  ^ 

The  Greek  Style 

The  Greek  Style  was  of  Asiatic  origin,  but  soon  freed 
itself  from  the  early,  stiff  hieratic  forms.  The  richness  of 
Oriental  color  remained  in  the  textiles  and  furniture;  and 
Greek  form  and  ornament  formed  the  principal  inspiration 
for  many  later  styles.  Wood  was  used  for  household  furni- 
ture; and  the  surfaces  of  the  luxurious  ob- 
jects were  variously  ornamented  with  de- 
signs of  animal  groups,  mythological  scenes 
and  floral  devices,  carved,  painted  and 
gilded.  The  wooden  furniture  of  the 
Greeks  has  all  perished  and  only  the  bronze  greek  chaiks 
tables,  tripods,  chairs  and  beds  remain.  ™^'  ^  ^^" 

The  characteristic  motives  of  Greek  ornament  are  the 
fret,  zigzag,  wave-scroll,  echinus   (called  also  the  horse- 

1  Dr.  Birch. 
2 


Styles  and  Schools 


chestnut,  or  egg-and-tongue),  guilloche,  patera  (or  rosette) 
and  anthemion  (or  honeysuckle).  The  Greeks  also  used  the 
sphynx,  griffin,  triton  and  chimsera  in  decoration ;  but  these 
mythological  animals  occur  far  more  frequently  in  Roman 
work. 

Greek  influence  began  to  be  felt  in  Rome  in  the  Third  Cen- 
tury B.  C.  Etruscan  Art  had  dominated  there  up  to  that 
time. 

The  Roman  Style 

Roman  furniture  was  exceedingly  costly  and  decorative. 
Marble,  gold,  silver  and  bronze  were  used  as  well  as  woods. 
Furniture  was  enriched  by  damascened 
work  and  inlaid  with  ivory,  metal  and 
sometimes  even  precious  stones.  Like 
the  Assyrians,  Eg^yptians  and  Greeks, 

.  ^  ,       ,  1     1  ROMAN  COUCH  OF  BRONZE 

the  Romans  carved  the  arms  and  legs 
of  chairs,  tables  and  couches  to  represent  the  legs  and  feet 
of  animals.  Maple,  beech,  holly,  olive,  cedar,  pine,  ash  and 
elm  were  the  chosen  woods,  and  cheaper  woods  were  ve- 
neered with  costly  woods  for  the  sake  of  the  decorative 
effect .  One  of  the  luxuries  of  the  day  was  a  wood  called 
thyine,  2l  kind  of  aloe  that  grew  in  Africa,  and  which  was 
valued  for  its  beauty,  hardness,  sweet  odor,  and,  not  least, 
for  the  good  luck  it  was  supposed  to  bring.  Thyine  was 
used  by  the  priests  for  incense,  and  the  Arabs  held  it  in 
such  high  estimation  that  they  made  the  ceiling  and  floor  of 
the  famous  Mosque  of  Cordova  of  this  precious  wood. 
Pliny  speaks  of  the  mania  for  this  kind  of  wood,  and  says 
when  husbands  scolded  their  wives  for  their  extravagance 
in  pearls,  the  latter  charged  them  with  their  extravagance  for 
tables  of  thyine  wood.  Cicero  had  one  of  these  tables  that 
cost  a  million  sesterces  (about  $45,000). 

3 


nm 


QQaanQ 

■^0p  '0-0 


Furniture 


The  Byzantine  Style 

The  style  known  as  Byzantine  is  a  development  of  the  early 
classic  Greek  mixed  with  Roman  and  Oriental  influences.  It 
developed  in  Constantinople,  the  capital  of  the  Eastern  Em- 
pire. Rich  furniture  adorned  the  homes  of  the  great.  It  is 
worth  noting  that  the  old  custom  of  reclining  at  meals  ceased 
and  people  sat  on  benches.  Ivory  entered  largely  in  the  deco- 
ration of  furniture,  and  beautiful  tapestries  and  cushions  were 
plentiful.  The  most  remarkable  relic  of  the  Byzantine  period 
^^^^  is  the  famous  chair  of  St.  Peter,  which 
authorities  agree  is  genuine.  It  is  now 
preserved  in  St.  Peter's  Church  in  Rome, 
but  is  entirely  covered  with  a  bronze  cas- 
ing, made  by  Bernini  in  1667  from  bronze 
taken  from  the  Pantheon.  According  to 
tradition  this  relic  belonged  to  Senator 
Pudens,  an  early  convert  to  Christianity, 
CHAIR  OP  ST.  PETER      ^j^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^j^^  Church  his   house   in 

Rome  over  which  now  stands  the  Church  of  St.  Puden- 
ziana.  The  chair  was  given  by  Pudens  to  St.  Peter,  and  it 
became  the  throne  of  the  See.  It  is  square,  with  solid  front 
and  arms.  The  square  front  is  thirty-nine  inches  wide  and 
thirty  inches  high,  and  is  embellished  with  eighteen  groups 
taken  from  the  Gospels,  beautifully  carved  in  ivory  and  inlaid 
with  pure  gold.  The  chair  itself  is  made  of  wood,  overlaid 
with  carved  ivory  and  gold,  and  bound  together  with  iron. 

The  Romanesque  Style 

The  Romanesque  {style  Roman),  which  prevailed  in 
Europe  during  the  Dark  Ages,  stands  between  the  Byzantine 
and  the  Gothic  Style.    Beginning  in  the  Fifth  Century,  it 

4 


Styles  and  Schools 


dominated  architecture  and  the  Decorative  Arts  till  the 
Twelfth  Century.  During  this  period  and  until  the  Renais- 
sance, furniture  was  architectural  in  form  and  decoration. 
The  panels  were  carved  or  painted  with  arca.des  of  round 
arches,  and  the  spaces  were  filled  with  saintly  figures  and 
monsters.  Geometrical  figures  were  also  largely  used  in 
the  ornamentation.  The  characteristic  details  of  the  mar- 
quetry of  this  style  are  the  star,  saw-tooth,  checker,  billet, 
overlapping  lozenges,  battlement  mouldings  and  diamond 
points. 

The  Gothic  Style 

The  furniture  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  constructed  of  solid 
oak,  consisting  of  massive  planks  and  wide  panels  left  bare 
to  be  decorated  with  painting,  stamped  leather,  or  lightly  cut 
ornaments.  Gradually  the  carving  developed  and  became 
more  important  in  company  with  the  changes  of  sculptured 
ornament  in  Gothic  architecture.  Under  the  luxurious  Dukes 
of  Burgundy,  Flemish  taste  prevailed  both  in  England  and 
France  during  the  Fifteenth  Century.  This  taste  was  char- 
acterized by  naturalism  of  form  and  face,  expressive  attitude 
and  a  tendency  to  satire  and  caricature. 

"  The  complete  development  of  Gothic  architecture,  and 
the  pieces  of  furniture  inspired  by  the  same  taste  are  divided 
into  flamboyant  Gothic  arcades,  and  crowned  by  fine  needle- 
shaped  crockets  and  floriated  croziers;  their  niches  contain 
elegantly  quaint  figures  and  the  panels  with  their  bas-reliefs 
rival  in  perfection  the  retables  (altar-pieces)  and  triptychs  of 
intricate  workmanship."  ^ 

A  glance  at  the  carved  furniture  of  this  period  shows  that 
the  motives  of  decoration  consisted  of  human  and  animal 
figures,  foliage  and  plate-tracery  and  bar-tracery.     In  the 

^  Jacquemaxt. 

5 


Furniture 

Fifteenth  Century  the  tracery  was  largely  supplanted  by  the 
"  linen- fold,"  which  became  exceedingly  popular  in  Germany, 
France,  Flanders  and  England.  The  panels  of  German  work 
on  Plate  III.  and  Plate  VII.  show  two  elaborate  examples  of 
this  motive  which  was  banished  by  the  Renaissance.  A  third 
example  on  Plate  VIII.  shows  this  design  on  a  French 
credence  or  buffet  of  the  same  period. 

During  the  Eleventh  and  Twelfth  Centuries  the  forms  of 
furniture  were  few.     Perhaps  the  most  important  was  the 
chest,  huche,  or  hahut,  in  which  money,  clothes,  linen,  tapes- 
tries and  valuables  were  preserved 
and  transported  from  place  to  place. 
Next  came  the  bedstead;    then  the 
chair,  for  the  master  of  the  house; 
then   the   high-backed   benches   and 
CARVED  OAK  SEAT  WITH  MovA-   stools    {cscaheaux)  \    thcu  the  cre- 
B^^BACK.  FiPTEENTH  CEN-   ^^^^^    (buffct)  ]     aud,    finally,    the 

dressoir,  with  its  shelves  on  which 
cloths  were  laid  and  plate  displayed. 

Furniture  changed  very  little  during  the  next  two  cen- 
turies. More  luxurious  fabrics  were  brought  home  by  the 
Crusaders;  and  the  cushions,  carpets  and  hangings  became 
richer  and  more  plentiful.  Carving  progressed  and  the 
style  of  marquetry  known  as  alia  certosa  was  introduced 
from  Italy. 

A  great  number  of  little  pieces  of  furniture,  such  as 
caskets,  coffers,  echiquiers  (chessboards)  incrusted  or  mar- 
quete  with  ivory  appear  in  the  inventories  of  the  Fourteenth 
Century,  generally  under  the  name  of  Voeuvre  de  Damas. 
Undoubtedly  the  Crusaders  brought  them  from  the  East, 
and  the  inlay  frequently  consists  of  verses  from  the  Koran 
(lettres  sardines).  In  Europe,  and  especially  in  France, 
these  wares  were  soon  imitated. 

Italian  furniture  during  the  Fifteenth  Century  was  nota- 

6 


Styles  and  Schools 

ble  for  its  bright  color;  painting  and  marquetry  were  its 
chief  characteristics.  During  the  Renaissance  furniture  bor- 
rowed its  forms  and  strong  rehefs  from  sculpture,  and  for 
the  flat  forms,  which  showed  off  the  purity  of  profile  and 
harmony  of  colors,  forms  of  furniture  were  substituted  that 
looked  well  with  imposing  architecture.  Each  piece  of  furni- 
ture presented  veritable  bas-reliefs  often  much  contorted, 
whose  magnificent  and  sumptuous  effect  was  increased  still 
more  by  being  ornamented  with  gold  or  covered  entirely 
with  gold. 

Leather  was  extensively  used  during  the  Middle  Ages  for 
furnishing:  it  was  hung  upon  the  walls  and  beds,  spread 
upon  the  floors,  and  was  used  to  cover  the  seats  and  backs  of 
chairs,  coffers,  and  all  kinds  of  boxes.  In  1420,  we  hear  of 
a  piece  of  Cordovan  called  cuirace  vermeil  "  to  put  on  the 
floor  around  a  bed,"  and  also  a  "  chamber  hanging  "  of 
"  silvered  cuir  de  moiitoii,  ornamented  with  red  figures." 
Charles  V.  of  France  had  "  fifteen  cuirs  d'Arragon  to  put 
on  the  floor  in  summer,"  and  the  Duke  of  Burgundy's  in- 
ventory of  1427  mentions  "  leathers  to  spread  in  the  chamber 
in  summer  time." 

The  floral  and  other  patterns  and  figures  were  gilded  and 
stood  out  from  grounds  of  bright  colors.  Though  the  use  of 
gilded  leather  (cuirs  dores)  did  not  become  general  until  the 
Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries,  the  art  of  gilding,  sil- 
vering, painting  and  goffering  leather  had  long  been  known. 
Cordova  was  making  beautiful  gilded  leathers  in  the  Eleventh 
Century.  The  most  beautiful  leathers  came  from  Spain, 
where  they  were  called  Guadameciles,  from  Ghadames  in 
Africa  from  which  town  the  Moors  carried  the  industry  to 
Cordova. 

From  Cordova  the  manufacture  spread  into  Portugal, 
Italy,  France  and  Brabant.  The  great  centres  for  gilded 
leathers  in  the  Middle  Ages  were  Cordova,  Lisbon,  Lille, 

7 


Furniture 

Brussels,  Liege,  Antwerp,  Mechlin  and  Venice.  The  Portu- 
guese leathers  were  made  of  sheepskin,  and  became  very 
famous.  These  were  imitated  by  the  Flemings  who  used  calf- 
skin with  less  success.  The  subjects  of  decoration  of  early 
leathers  are  taken  from  sacred  or  mythological  stories.  The 
details  of  the  faces,  ornaments,  costumes,  arms,  etc.,  are 
stamped  by  hand  work  and  finished  with  a  brush;  and  the 
background  is  ornamented  by  guilloches  (twisted  bands)  in 
gold  and  color,  applied  by  means  of  a  goffering  iron. 

Beautiful  Cordovan  leather  covers  the  chair  on  Plate  XIX. 

Little  study  has  yet  been  given  to  the  arts  in  Spain  during 
the  Middle  Ages ;  and  although  wood-carving  was  in  a  very 
flourishing  condition,  being  largely  used  in  the  decoration 
of  the  Mauresque  buildings,  yet  examples  of  Spanish  fur- 
niture of  the  period  are  extremely  rare.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  this  may  be  explained  by  the  Oriental  influence  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  peninsula  which  reduced  furniture  to  the 
mere  necessaries,  —  chests,  cushions,  carpets  and  hangings. 
The  Gothic  work  produced  by  the  native  craftsmen  belongs 
principally  to  what  might  be  called  the  international  style  of 
the  Fifteenth  Century.  It  is  believed  that  there  must  still 
exist  in  Spain  a  good  deal  of  carved  furniture  of  that  period 
which  in  construction  and  ornamentation  resembles  the  work 
of  the  French  and  Flemish  experts  of  that  day. 

''In  the  Fifteenth  Century,  the  bedchamber  is  thus  rep- 
resented: the  curtained  bedstead,  with  corniced  tester,  dis- 
played its  costly  coverlets ;  on  one  side  was  the  master's  chair, 
then  the  devotional  picture  or  small  domestic  altar  attached 
to  the  wall.  The  dressoir  and  other  small  pieces  of  furniture 
were  to  be  seen  ranged  round  the  apartment  and  often  in 
front  of  the  immense  fireplace  was  a  high-backed  seat  where 
the  inmates  came  to  seek  warmth.  This  arrangement  which 
is  seen  in  miniatures  and  tapestries  taken  from  various 
sources,  proves  the  uniformity  of  habits  in  the  different 

8 


Styles  and  Schools 

classes  of  society.  Here  we  find  personages  whose  dress 
and  elegance  denote  their  high  position ;  here  again  are  plain 
citizens  surrounded  by  their  serving-men,  and  by  a  number 
of  objects  which  allow  us  to  judge  that  the  apartment  is  at 
once  the  bedchamber,  reception-room,  and  refectory  of  the 
family. 

"  If  we  enter  the  study  of  the  statesman  or  of  the  writer, 
we  find  the  high-chair,  or  faldistoire,  with  its  monumental 
back,  the  revolving-desk  called  a  '  wheel,'  used 
to  keep  a  certain  number  of  books  within 
reach,  lecterns  and  various  other  sorts  of 
desks  for  writing."  ^ 

Gothic  furniture  dating  before  1400  A.  D. 
is  exceeding-ly  scarce:    even  the  most  famous 

f  /  ,  ,  .  .        ,  •  r        1  PRIE-DIEU  CHAIR, 

museums  thmk  themselves  fortunate  if  they  fifteenth 
possess  one  or  two  examples.  Plate  I.  repre-  ^ntury 
sents  a  celebrated  chest  of  Lorraine  workmanship,  now  in 
the  Cluny  Museum.  It  was  made  about  1300  A.  D.,  and  is  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  the  art  of  the  period. 
Over  the  front  are  carved  twelve  fully  arnied  warriors  in 
Gothic  niches,  the  spaces  between  being  occupied  by  grotesque 
faces  and  chimerical  animals.  The  panels  on  the  ends  of  the 
chest  are  also  richly  carved.  The  left  one  contains  an  oak 
tree  with  fantastic  birds  on  its  branches  and  on  the  ground. 
The  right  panel  is  carved  with  a  body  of  cavalry  on  the  march. 
The  back  of  the  chest  is  ornamented  with  four  groups  of 
workmen,  warriors,  porters,  and  falconers.  On  the  lid  are 
twelve  medallions  separated  by  chimerical  animals:  they 
are  framed  with  foliage  and  animals  of  the  chase  picked  out 
with  painting.  The  principal  medallions  are  filled  with  love 
scenes,  men  fighting  and  tilting,  musicians  and  jongleurs, 
all  carved  with  great  spirit  and  humor. 

Another  famous  Gothic  chest,  also  in  the  Cluny  Museum, 

^  Jacquemart. 

9 


Furniture 

is  reproduced  on  Plate  11.  The  carving  on  the  front  repre- 
sents a  tournament  scene  of  the  first  half  of  the  Fifteenth 
Century,  and  is  interesting  as  a  record  of  the  costume  and 
armor  of  the  period. 

Germany  is  richer  in  Gothic  furniture  that  has  survived 
than  either  England  or  France.  Several  museums  and 
castles  have  fine  collections  of  Mediaeval  woodwork.  The 
cupboard,  or  wardrobe,  shown  on  Plate  VII.  is  an  excellent 
example  of  the  late  Gothic  art.  It  is  in  the  Nuremberg 
Museum.  The  figures  of  Peter  and  Paul  in  the  top  panels 
are  in  the  style  of  Peter  Visscher,  the  great  Nuremberg 
sculptor  (1460- 1 529). 

The  splendid  carved  bench  or  settle  (Plate  III.)  in  the 
same  museum  belongs  to  the  same  period.  It  is  a  fine  type 
of  the  seat  of  honor  that  was  found  in  every  great  baronial 
hall.  When  complete,  it  had  a  step,  or  foot-board,  a  dais,  or 
canopy,  and  cushions. 

Another  treasure  of  the  Nuremberg  Museum  is  the  half- 
headed  Gothic  bed  (Plate  V.)  with  its  panels  of  flamboyant 
plate  and  thistle  design. 

The  richly  carved  Gothic  press,  or  Schra^k  (Plate  VI.), 
also  in  the  Nuremberg  Museum,  came  from  Bterzing  in  the 
Tyrol :  it  was  made  about  1 500  A,  D.  This  type  of  wardrobe 
was  common  all  over  Germany  in  wealthy  nomes  where  the 
mistress  used  it  for  fine  linen  and  plate ;  and  in  the  sacristy, 
where  it  was  used  for  storing  ecclesiastical  paraphernalia. 

A  very  ordinary  form  of  Gothic  bed  is  one  in  the  Munich 
Museum,  reproduced  on  Plate  IV.  As  a  rule,  it  was  fixed 
to  the  paneling  of  the  room  and  carved  in  the  same  style. 

"  The  real  certosino  originated  in  Venice  and  was  an 
Oriental  imitation;  from  the  Thirteenth  Century  to  the 
end  of  the  Fourteenth  the  incrustations  were  in  black  and 
white  wood,  sometimes  enriched  with  ivory;  it  was  not 
until  later  that  the  number  of  colored  woods  was  increased, 

10 


o 

c 


s:3i 


o 


Styles  and  Schools 

and  that  ivory  was  used  with  its  natural  tint  or  stained 
green;  sometimes  small  metallic  plaques  were  added  to  the 
work.  These  primitive  labors  are  almost  always  of  small 
dimensions,  consisting  of  boxes  and  jewel-caskets  of  rather 
hasty  make.  When  the  inlaid  work  is  applied  to  furniture 
it  is  at  first  with  a  certain  reserve ;  a  chest  (bahut)  belonging 
to  M.  Henri  Cernuschi  is  simply  ornamented  with  fillets 
round  its  circumference,  and  on  each  side  by  a  circle  formed 
of  small  bone  lozenges  incrusted  in  the  brown  wood.  This 
chest  dates  from  the  Fifteenth  Century. 
Later  on  come  the  cassoni,  the  cabinets, 
the  folding-tables,  the  seats  shaped  in  the 
form  of  an  X,  and  even  elegantly  carved 
high-backed  chairs  in  which  colored 
woods  combined  with  ivory  form  geo- 
metrical designs  of  great  richness ;  often 
in  circular  medallions,  or  in  the  middle 
of  panels,  a  vase  appears,  whence  issue  Spanish  chair,"^ood 
flowered  stems,  which  rise  upwards,  l^oux^Tsii  inlaid, 
spreading  out  like  a  bouquet  of  fire- 
works. '^  Nearly  all  the  furniture  in  pique  alia  certosa  comes 
from  Italy;  but  some  may  be  met  with,  among  the  most 
striking  of  which  have  been  made  in  Portugal;  these  are 
generally  to  be  recognized  by  the  plentiful  appliances  of 
pierced  copper  that  ornament  them.  The  cabinets  have 
complicated  corners  and  keyholes  which  the  gilding  ren- 
ders peculiarly  brilliant. 

"  The  word  tarsia,  or  intarsia,  was  used  in  Italy  to  desig- 
nate all  incrustations  or  marquetry  either  in  wood  or  any 
other  material  on  a  background  of  wood,  but,  strictly  speak- 
ing, it  should  only  be  employed  when  the  pictures  represent 
landscapes,  still  life,  architecture  or  other  scenes,  while  the 
word  certosino  is  used  to  describe  marquetry  composed  of 
very  minute  fragments  put  together  in  geometrical  patterns. 

II 


Furniture 

"  Taken  in  its  literal  sense,  certosino  describes  work  made 
by  the  disciples  of  St.  Bruno  —  the  Carthusians  —  mosaic 
work  of  the  most  delicate  description  in  bone,  ivory,  mother- 
of-pearl,  metal,  or  woods  chemically  colored,  and  showing 
the  greatest  amount  of  patience  though  rarely  in  any  save 
geometrical  designs.  Tarsia,  on  the  other  hand,  rendered 
by  means  of  chemically  colored  woods  pictures  which  the 
mosaic-worker  either  copied  or  originated.  The  decorations 
of  the  armoires  in  the  sacristy  of  the  Duomo  in  Florence  are 
evidently  original  with  the  artist  who  ornamented  them. 
These  mosaics  were  found  to  be  very  perishable :  tarsia  was 
costly  and  difficult  to  execute,  and  the  atmospheric  changes 
were  very  harmful.  It  was  necessary  to  restore  fine  pieces 
frequently ;  so  frequently,  indeed,  that  little  was  left  of  the 
original  ornamentation.  Therefore  at  the  end  of  the  Fif- 
teenth and  beginning  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  this  style  of 
decoration  was  supplanted  by  painting.  The  beautiful  work 
in  the  sacristy  of  Santa  Maria  delle  Grazie  in  Milan,  attrib- 
uted to  Bernardino  Luini,  showed  that  painted  panels  were 
superior  to  those  of  marquetry.  It  was  now  but  a  step  to 
those  beautifully  painted  little  caskets  and  coffers  with  deli- 
cate paintings  on  a  gold  background. 

"  Furniture  was  exquisitely  painted  during  the  Sixteenth 
Century.  By  1550  tarsia- work  had  taken  a  subordinate 
place.  Italian  furniture  of  the  first  period  of  the  Renais- 
sance was  conceived  by  painters  and  made  by  workmen  who 
followed  their  designs.  Very  often  they  misunderstood  the 
special  purpose  for  which  the  special  piece  was  intended. 
In  this  the  French  huchier  was  supreme:  he  never  mis- 
understood the  purpose  for  which  any  piece  was  intended  — 
form  and  decoration  had  to  be  subordinate  to  the  function 
and  destination  of  every  piece  of  furniture  that  he  made."  ^ 

A  beautiful  example  of  inlaid  work  of  the  period  ap- 
*  Molinier. 
12 


^ 


Plate  III 

Gothic  Settle 
Nuremberg  Museum 


: '     ,     f    ,    < 


c     c   f  t  c    c 


Styles  and  Schools 

pears  on  Plate  X.,  representing  a  bed  that  belonged  to  the 
Princess  Palatine,  Susanna,  and  to  which  the  date  1530 
is  attributed  by  the  authorities  of  the  Munich  Museum, 
where  it  is  preserved.    It  is  probably  of  Italian  workmanship. 

In  the  Sixteenth,  as  in  the  preceding  century,  the  Italians 
were  particularly  fond  of  the  Roman  triumphal  arch  and 
sarcophagus,  as  forms  for  furniture.  The  Classic  Orders 
were  in  great  vogue,  and  the  arabesque  and  candelabra- 
shaped  pilasters,  introduced  so  long  ago  into  decoration,  were 
renewed  and  made  popular  by  Raphael.  To  the  ancient  style 
of  marquetry,  composed  of  little  geometrically-cut  cubes  of 
natural  wood,  there  succeeded  a  marquetry  of  colored  woods 
arranged  to  form  actual  pictures  with  perspective.  Some 
of  the  furniture  was  carved,  and  then  painted,  or  gilded; 
but  other  furniture  shows  large  surfaces  that  are  decorated 
with  beautiful  oil  paintings. 

The  Italian  furniture  was  particularly  da  pompa,  made 
for  the  adornment  of  long  galleries,  enriched  with  paintings, 
gildings,  tapestries,  velvets,  damasks,  brocades,  cushions, 
curtains,  mirrors  and  sumptuous  cassoni.  Beds,  chairs, 
tables,  cabinets,  mirror  and  picture  frames,  standing  can- 
delabra, bellows,  coffers,  chests,  seats  and  buffets  (cre- 
denza),  are  of  the  most  luxurious  nature.  /Plate  XL  shows 
a  good  example  of  an  Italian  chest  of  the  period.  To  this 
period  belonged  the  famous  nuptial  set  in  the  Borgherini 
Palace,  Florence. 

When  Salvi  Borgherini's  son,  Pier  Francesco,  was  be- 
trothed to  Margherita  Acciajuoli,  Salvi  resolved  to  prepare 
for  them  a  beautiful  nuptial  chamber  decorated  entirely  by 
the  first  artists  of  the  time.  Baccio  d'Agnolo  carved  all 
the  ornaments  of  the  doors  and  the  bed  and  mantelpiece  and 
made  the  superb  furniture  that  consisted  of  high-backed 
chairs  (spalliere),  stools  and  seats  (sederi),  and  coffers 
(cassoni),  all  of  which  were  enriched  with  delicate  carving. 

13 


Furniture 

But  this  was  not  all:  the  entire  room  was  decorated  with 
panels  painted  by  such  artists  as  Andrea  del  Sarto,  Francesco 
Granacci,  Jacopo  da  Pontormo  and  Bacchiacca,  the  subject 
being  the  story  of  Joseph.  The  wedding  is  supposed  to  have 
taken  place  in  1523.  The  beautiful  bridal  chamber  excited 
the  greatest  admiration. 

During  the  eight  months'  siege  of  Florence  in  1527,  a 
furniture-dealer  named  Giovanbattista  della  Palla,  employed 
by  Frangois  I.,  King  of  France,  to  secure  for  him  whatever 
art  treasures  he  could  find,  appeared  before  the  Signory  and 
suggested  that  the  pictures  and  furniture  of  the  Borgherini 
chamber  should  be  purchased  and  presented  by  the  city  of 
Florence  to  Frangois  I.  Consent  was  given,  and  the  wily 
furniture-dealer,  knowing  that  Salvi  Borgherini  had  recently 
died  and  that  Pier  Francesco  was  in  Lucca,  hurried  to  the 
Palace. 

"  Much  to  his  surprise,  however,  he  was  confronted  on 
the  threshold  of  the  bride-chamber  by  Margherita  Acciajuoli 
herself,  a  valiant  lady,  worthy  to  be  the  wife  and  daughter 
of  noble  Florentine  citizens,  who  at  once  assailed  him  with 
a  torrent  of  violent  reproaches.  *  You,  Giovanbattista?  '  she 
exclaimed,  *you!  vile  broker,  paltry  twopenny  shopkeeper! 
you  dare  to  come  and  seize  the  ornaments  of  gentlemen's 
rooms  and  spoil  this  city  of  its  richest  and  noblest  things, 
and  all  to  embellish  foreign  countries  and  the  homes  of  our 
enemies  ?  I  do  not  wonder  at  you,  plebeian  that  you  are,  and 
enemy  of  your  country,  but  I  am  surprised  at  the  magis- 
trates of  this  city  who  allow  your  abominable  wickedness. 
This  bed  which  you  seek  to  satisfy  your  own  greed  of  gain, 
however  much  you  may  endeavor  to  conceal  your  evil  in- 
tentions under  the  cloak  of  duty,  is  my  own  marriage  bed. 
It  was  in  honor  of  my  nuptials  that  my  father-in-law,  Salvi, 
prepared  all  this  magnificent  and  royal  furniture,  dear  to 
me  both  for  the  sake  of  his  memory  and  for  the  love  I  bear 

14 


Plate  IV 

Gothic  Bedstead 
Munich  Museum 


Styles  and  Schools 

my  husband,  and  which  I  intend  to  defend  with  the  last 
drop  of  my  blood.  Get  out  of  this  house,  then,  with  all 
your  troop,  Giovanbattista !  Go  and  tell  those  who  sent  you 
that  I  will  not  suffer  a  single  thing  to  be  removed  froni  this 
place;  and  if  those  who  trust  you,  contemptible  man,  wish 
to  send  gifts  to  the  King  of  France,  let  them  go  and  spoil 
their  own  houses  and  the  ornaments  and  beds  of  their  own 
chambers!  Go!  and  if  ever  you  dare  to  show  your  face 
again  in  this  house  I  will  teach  you,  to  your  cost,  the  respect 
which  the  like  of  you  owe  to  the  houses  of  gentlemen/  " 

Margherita  Acciajuoli   kept  her  treasures;    but   in  the 
course    of    time    they    were    dispersed.      Andrea's    and 
Pontormo's  panels  were  preserved,   and  are  now  in  the 
Pitti  and  Uffizi  galleries.     All  the  rest  were  lost. 
,-     In  the   Sixteenth  Century  furni- 
ture more  like  that  in  use  in  our  own 
day  became  more  general ;  but  much 
of  it  is  often  described  as  "  camp 
furniture.*'     Everything  was  made 

to  take  apart :  the  columns  of  the  merman  table,  about  1500 
beds  were  jointed;    the  tables  were 

slabs  placed  on  trestles ;  the  chairs  folded  up ;  and  curtains 
were  hung  on  poles  with  rings.  Rugs,  cushions  and  superb 
tapestries  soon  turned  a  temporary  lodging  into  a  luxurious 
and  beautiful  abode.  Chests  and  bahnts  were  still  of  the 
greatest  importance.  Towards  the  end  of  this  century,  fur- 
niture became  more  abundant ;  and  though  much  of  it  was 
"  movable,"  much  of  it  was  made  for  its  one  permanent 
home. 

Louis  XII.  Style 

The  dawn  of  the  Renaissance  in  France  is  known  as  the 
Louis  XII.  Style.  It  was  the  transitional  period  following 
the  Italian  expedition  of  Charles  VIII.  in  1497.    The  furni- 

15 


Furniture 

ture  becomes  Classic  in  form,  and  the  antique  column  again 
finds  its  place  in  the  decoration,  but  the  pilaster  is  preferred 
on  account  of  its  flat  face  being  so  well  adapted  for  the  carved 
arabesques  so  characteristic  of  this  period.  The  detail  is 
principally  floral,  human  and  animal  forms  being  unimportant 
and  expressionless.  The  furniture  of  Louis  XII.  and 
Frangois  I.  was  not  altogether  derived  from  the  Italian 
furniture.  The  style  of  the  ornamentation  was  Italian ;  but 
its  architecture  remained  purely  French  until  the  middle  of 
the  'Sixteenth  Century  and,  in  some  provinces,  even  later. 

"  The  Renaissance  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  is  divided  into 
two  distinct  periods,  those  of  Frangois  I.  and  Henri  11. 
The  first  is  exuberant,  bloated  and  prodigal.  The  second  is 
more  restrained,  more  linear,  more  geometrical,  and  more 
severe.  The  characteristic  impression  produced  by  the  works 
of  the  Renaissance  Style  is  that  of  vast  wealth  of  varied  fancy 
in  the  decorative  motives  and  in  the  swarm  of  their  details. 
Every  piece  of  furniture  is  a  whole  world  in  which  swarm 
real  or  fantastic  beings  mingled  with  garlands  of  flowers  and 
fruits.  It  is  the  spectacle  of  a  fat  fecundity,  better  nourished 
than  the  style  of  the  preceding  period.  Gothic  carving  was 
all  on  the  same  plane;  its  richness  was  more  geometrical. 
In  the  Renaissance  Style,  the  planes  are  innumerable.  The 
nudity  of  its  ridges  and  lines  disappears.  Supports,  panels, 
cornices  and  frontons  are  all  covered  with  ornamental  de- 
tails grouped  into  episodes,  each  of  which  has  its  own 
life  and  centre  of  action. 

"  The  special  characteristic  of  the  style  is  the  monumental 
fagade  of  most  of  the  pieces  of  furniture.  They  are  Roman 
temples  with  Orders  of  architecture  one  above  another: 
the  Doric  below,  the  Ionic  in  the  middle,  and  the  Corinthian 
on  top.  The  whole  is  surmounted  by  a  pediment,  the  apex  of 
which  is  cut  out,  and  in  the  hollow  is  placed  a  bust,  or  vase, 
or  statuette.     In  the  panels  of  the  intercolumniations  and 

i6 


, '    '  '     > 


Plate  V 
Gothic  Bedstead 

Nuremberg  Museum 


Styles  and  Schools 

in  the  uprights  are  niches,  framed  in  an  architectural  motive 
which  shelter  figures  of  antique  heroes  or  divinites.  Some- 
times there  are  round  medallions,  like  windows,  from  which 
protrude  curious  heads  with  outstretched  necks. 

"  The  most  frequent  motives  of  decoration  of  this  style* 
are  Classic  columns,  pediments,  broken  pediments,  heads  in 
hollows,  termed  figures,  garlands,  pagan  divinities,  antique 
heroes,  initial  letters  cut  out  and  tied  with  strings  of  foliage, 
caryatides,  grotesque  faces,  the  F.  of  Francois  I.  and  the 
salamander,  his  attributes.  In  the  painted  or  carved  ara- 
besques are  mingled  the  animal  and  vegetable  worlds ;  imagi- 
nary beings,  half -animal,  half -vegetable,  are  entwined  with 
garlands  and  foliage. 

Henri  II.  Style 

"  The  Style  Henri  II .  is  more  severe  and  geometrical  than 
that  of  Frangois  I.  The  ornamentation  of  the  projections 
shows  more  restraint,  and  the  general  shape  of  the  object  is 
more  rectangular.  The  vertical  dominates  the  horizontal. 
Columns  with  long  shafts  finely  fluted  take  the  place  of 
the  human  fibres  that  acted  as  supports  in  the  preceding 
period."  ^ 

The  grand  lit  a  baldaquin  of  the  period  of  Frangois  I., 
reproduced  on  Plate  XIIL,  is  one  of  the  treasures  of  the 
Cluny  Museum.  It  was  carved  by  French  artists,  and  is 
greatly  admired  for  the  elegance  of  the  details  of  its 
decoration.  The  baldachin  is  supported  in  front  by  col- 
umns, and  at  the  back  by  figures  of  Victory  and  Mars. 
The  ornamentation  of  the  headboard  is  elaborate,  consisting 
of  a  ducal  crown,  fruits,  mascarons,  rosettes  and  dolphins. 
The  hangings  and  coverings  are  of  later  date  than  the  bed, 
having  belonged  to  Pierre  de  Gondi,  Bishop  of  Paris. 

^  P.  Rouaix. 
17 


Furniture 

A  handsome  armoire  made  in  the  He  de  France  in  the 
middle  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  reproduced  on  Plate  XIV., 
is  of  unusual  construction.  The  lower  part  is  open:  the 
upper  part  consists  of  cupboards  and  drawers.  The  central 
door  is  decorated  with  a  figure  of  Hebe  in  a  medallion  sur- 
mounted by  genii.  The  side  doors  have  niches  containing 
pyramids. 

For  the  characteristics  of  the  furniture  of  the  second 
half  of  the  Seventeenth  Century  there  is  no  higher  authority 
than  M.  Bonnaffe,  who  says : 

"  With  Charles  IX.  and  Henri  III.  the  type  still  remains 
excellent,  but  is  richer  and  more  effective.  The  carving  is 
abundant,  the  mouldings  graved,  the  ornaments  strapped, 
and  the  reliefs  are  more  strongly  accented.  It  is  the  reign 
of  caryatides,  terms,  satyrs  and  chimseras  which  the  artists 
multiply  with  inexhaustible  imagination.  Du  Cerceau  de- 
signs for  the  workshops  new  arrangements  and  combina- 
tions which  are  sometimes  singular,  but  always  of  great 
ingenuity.  Gilding  and  silvering  were  lavishly  employed. 
A  contemporary  says  that  people  wanted  all  their  furniture 
to  be  gilded,  silvered  and  inlaid. 

"  Checked  by  the  civil  and  religious  wars,  the  furniture 
industry  revived  under  Henri  IV.  The  designs  are  some- 
what heavy  and  overloaded,  but  still  of  grand  appearance 
and  fine  execution.  The  over-long  columns,  joined  or  sur- 
rounded by  foliage  and  rising  as  high  as  the  cornice,  the 
panels  adorned  with  cavaliers,  the  moustached  terms,  and 
the  inlays  of  fine  copper  thread  and  mother-of-pearl  belong 
to  this  period." 

The  greatest  name  of  this  period  is  that  of  Androuet  Du 
£erceau,  who  was  born  about  1510  and  who  travelled  when 
young  into  Italy,  where  he  fell  under  the  influence  of  Bra- 
mante.  On  his  return  home,  he  issued  designs  that  were 
practically  taken  from  that  architect.    His  idea  was  to  make 

18 


i   '       J    > 


Plate  VI 

Gothic  Press  from  the  Tyrol  (about  1500) 
Nuremberg  Museum 


Styles  and  Schools 

popular  in  France  the  forms  and  designs  of  Italian  art. 
Among  the  engravings  that  he  published  was  an  album  con- 
taining seventy-one  designs  for  furniture,  including  twenty- 
one  cabinets  or  dressoirs,  twenty-four  tables,  eight  beds,  a 
choir-stall,  two  brackets,  a  panel,  an  overmantel,  three  termi- 
nals and  eight  socles  or  pedestals. 

"  The  complicated  prodigality  of  lines  and  ornaments  in 
these  designs  is  perfectly  astonishing,"  a  modern  observer 
remarks,  "  and  arouses  a  doubt  as  to  whether  it  would  be 
possible  to  reproduce  them  exactly;  but  this  was  evidently 
not  the  intention  of  the  author,  as  proved  by  the  works  exe- 
cuted during  and  after  his  time.  All  he  wished  was  that  his 
book  should  be,  so  to  speak,  a  mine  of  ideas,  from  which 
craftsmen  might  borrow  architectural  combinations  and 
decorative  motives,  to  be  arranged  according  to  their  own 
individual  taste.  Hence  the  overloading  of  every  engraving 
with  superfluous  detail,  which  no  one,  we  should  imagine, 
would  be  so  unreasonable  as  to  attempt  to  copy  servilely."  ^ 

The  French  readily  assimilated  the  new  Italian  ideas 
and  soon  formed  schools  of  their  own.  The  most  famous  of 
these  is  the  Burgundian,  which  was  largely  indebted  to  the 
work  of  Hughes  Sambin,  an  architect  and  master  carpenter, 
who  was~a5out  ten  years  younger  than  Du  Cerceau  and  who 
died  in  1602.  He  studied  under  Michael  Angelo  and  pub- 
lished between  his  architectural  works  an  album  of  designs 
for  caryatides  and  made  and  superintended  the  construction 
of  a  number  of  pieces  of  furniture. 

"  In  these  minor  works  the  Burgundian  artist  gave  proof 
of  a  very  prolific  and  powerful  imagination.  He  lavished 
carvings  of  figures,  fruit  and  foliage  on  the  surface  of  the 
wood  with  a  view  to  giving  a  general  impression  of  richness, 
whilst  Du  Cerceau  gave  more  attention  to  grace  of  line, 
and  relied  for  effect  chiefly  upon  the  wealth  of  beautiful  but 

*  Andr6  Saglio. 
19 


Furniture 

often  minute  detail.  The  former  delighted  in  carving  lions' 
heads,  eagles  with  mighty  wings,  voluptuous  women  and 
muscular  satyrs  with  merry  faces.  The  latter  was  a  fervent 
admirer  of  the  long-limbed,  elegant-looking  goddesses  which 
Jean  Goujon  borrowed  from  the  Italian  artists  who  worked 
at  Fontainebleau,  and  which  became  widely  popular  through 
the  work  of  the  school  that  took  its  name  from  this  favorite 
residence  of  Frangois  I.  and  Henri  II."  ^ 

De  Champeaux  says :  **  It  is  the  taste  for  caryatides  and 
grotesque  figures  surrounded  by  garlands,  and  supporting 
broken  pediments  that  predominate  in  all  his  compositions. 
The  result  is  a  certain  character  of  heaviness  and  hizarrerie 
that  is  more  conspicuous  in  the  buildings  contributed  by  him 
than  in  his  furniture,  for  the  material  of  the  latter,  less  cold 
than  stone,  allows  more  scope  to  the  original  fantasy  of  the 
artist.  The  furniture  inspired  by  Sambin's  designs  does  not 
exhibit  the  ponderous  grace  of  the  armoires  and  buffets  made 
in  Paris;  the  lines  are  not  traced  with  the  same  tasteful 
harmony;  but  it  must  be  recognized  that  no  school  equals 
the  vigor  and  the  dramatic  expression  of  the  Burgundian 
artists  of  this  period.  The  figures  of  the  caryatides  and 
chimerical  animals  that  support  the  various  parts  of  their 
furniture  and  conceal  the  uprights,  are  animated  with  a 
brutal  energy  that  only  skilful  chisels  can  create.  More- 
over, the  walnut  wood  of  which  they  are  carved  has  been 
clothed  with  a  warm  tone  that  sometimes  equals  that  of 
Florentine  bronzes." 

Another  cabinet-maker  of  the  period  was  Nicholas 
Bachelier,  who  was  also  an  architect,  engineer,  sculptor  and 
designer  of  furniture. 

The  carved  wood  chair  on  Plate  XV.  shows  that  this  form 
of  the  high-backed  chair  of  honor  of  the  Middle  Ages  con- 
tinued in  favor  during  the  Renaissance.     Apart  from  the 

*  Andr6  Saglio. 
20 


»:   >  '. »  » 


Plate  VII 

Gothic  Cupboard  with  Linenfold  Panels 
Nuremberg  Museum 


Styles  and  Schools 

motives  used  for  the  decoration,  the  only  development  no- 
ticeable is  the  breaking  up  of  the  sides  and  arms  of  the  seat 
into  legs  and  posts.  The  smooth  columns  and  plain  bulb 
feet  are  a  welcome  relief  from  the  riot  of  carving  of  much 
contemporary  work.  This  chair  was  superseded  by  others 
of  lighter  form  before  the  close  of  the  Seventeenth  Century. 


The  Jesuit  Style 

At  this  period,  too,  what  is  familiarly  known  as  the  "  Jesuit 
Style ''  makes  its  appearance.  In  1603,  the  Jesuits,  who 
had  been  expelled  from  France  in  1595,  were  recalled,  and 
on  their  return  began  to  build  colleges  and  churches.  Their 
leader,  fetienne  Martellange,  of  Lyons,  who  had  studied 
architecture  in  Rome,  inaugurated  the  pseudo-classic  Roman 
style  in  building  and  in  designs  for  furniture,  but  the  more 
popular  designation  of  "  Jesuit "  is  usually  given  to  it. 
Lyons  was  a  great  centre  for  fine  carving  and  beautiful 
furniture,  and,  like  Burgundy,  was  a  rival  of  Paris  as 
regards  this  art. 

The  Spanish  Renaissance 

The  great  wave  of  the  Renaissance  flowed  into  Spain,  but 
it  was  carried  thither  not  by  Italian  artists  but  across  the 
Pyrenees  by  the  French  and  Flemish  painters,  carvers  and 
weavers.  The  political  relations  between  Spain  and  the 
Low  Countries  account  for  the  great  horde  of  Flemish 
workers  that  flocked  to  the  country  where  there  was  vast 
wealth.  Juan  de  Arphe  reproached  his  contemporaries  for 
copying  the  designs  of  the  Flemings ;  but  with  little  effect. 
The  Gothic  school  of  carving  lasted  until  1530,  in  which 
year  Berruguete  returned  to  Spain  from  Italy,  where  he 
had  studied  in  the  studio  of  Michael  Angelo.     Nicholas 

21 


Furniture 

Bachelier  of  Toulouse,  Geronimo  Hernandez  and  Gregorio 
Par  do  also  contributed  to  the  development  of  the  new  style 
in  Spain. 

Senor  J.  F.  Riano  says :  "  The  brilliant  epoch  of  sculp- 
ture (in  wood)  belongs  to  the  Sixteenth  Century,  and  was 
due  to  the  great  impulse  it  received  from  the  works  of  Berru- 
guete  and  Felipe  de  Borgofiu.  He  was  the  chief  promoter 
of  the  Italian  style,  and  the  choir  of  the  Cathedral  of  Toledo, 
where  he  worked  so  much,  is  the  finest  specimen  of  the  kind 
in  Spain.  Toledo,  Seville,  and  Valladolid  were  at  the  time 
great  productive  and  artistic  centres." 

Regarding  the  decorative  features  of  this  school,  M. 
Bonnaffe  says: 

"If  the  tormented  attitudes,  excessive  anatomy,  and  mus- 
cular effects  recall  the  Florentine  manner,  yet  the  types 
remain  frankly  Spanish;  the  eye  is  dug  with  a  deep  and 
sure  stroke  that  makes  the  arch  of  the  brow  stand  strongly 
out,  the  arms  and  legs  end  in  leaves,  or  in  volutes  of  a  par- 
ticular turn.  The  painted  and  gilded  woods  are  treated 
with  great  skill  and  decorative  refinements  that  denote  a 
finished  art.  Spanish  walnut  has  a  close  grain,  and  a  singu- 
larly polished  and  lustrous  surface.  Cedar,  cypress,  and 
pine  were  principally  used  for  the  figures.  Oak  was  imported 
from  France  and  England,  as  it  was  scarce  in  Spain." 

"  In  Germany  the  Renaissance  appeared  under  the  power- 
ful influence  and  fruitful  example  of  Albrecht  Diirer  who 
developed  it  to  a  high  degree.  Wood  and  copper  engraving 
were  a  strong  means  of  propagation  for  him  and  his  pupils 
and  they  all  used  them  freely  to  supply  the  workshops  of 
all  industries  with  the  varied  models  of  their  ingenious 
inspiration." 

Thus  writes  M.  de  Laborde;  and,  after  studying  the 
extant  specimens  of  the  furniture  of  that  period  and  the 
designs  of  the  masters  of  ornament,  from  Diirer  to  Diet- 

22 


Plate  VIII 

Gothic  Credence  (French) 
Metropolitan  Museum 


Styles  and  Schools 


terlin,  M.  Bonnaffe  decides  that  '*  the  German  was  an  im- 
penitent Gothic  who  was  never  touched  with  the  grace  of 
the  Renaissance.  He  accepted  it  unwilUngly,  coarsened  it, 
dislocated  it,  made  its  profiles  heavy,  and  its  propositions 
unnatural  and  excessive.  The  features  of  German  work- 
manship are  apparent  at  first  sight ;  rigid  figures,  intentional 
ugliness,  a  wealth  of  complicated  ornaments  executed  with 
marvellous  skill,  shrivelled  foliage,  and  deeply  cut  drapery 
extravagantly  broken.  The  hands  are  long,  thin  and  thick- 
jointed,  the  caryatides  are  hip-shot,  the  faces  protrude  vio- 
lently out  of  the  frame.  The  thing  as  a  whole  is  tormented, 
labored,  tangled  and  tumultuous.  There  is  no  taste,  but  an 
inexhaustible  animation;  no  grace  and  abandon,  but  the 
male,  robust,  passionate  gait ;  an  extreme  striving  for  effect, 
character  and  expression;   and  undeniable  power. 

"  This  exuberant  realism,  controlled  by  the  genius  of  Al- 
brecht  Diirer,  and  tempered  by  Italian  infiltration,  produced 
works  full  of  quality,  and,  for  more  than  half  a  century, 
the  school,  carried  along  by  the  first  impulsion  of  the  master, 
continued  its  way,  thanks  to  the  vitality  it  had  acquired. 
But  when  the  day  arrived  on  which  it  had  no  longer  a  leader, 
enthusiasm  or  counterpoise,  and  had  nothing  but  itself  to  de- 
pend upon,  the  art  followed  in  the  wake  of  the  Flemings  and 
Italians  of  the  Decadence.  Germany  had  played  its  part :  it 
still  kept  its  accent,  but  no  longer  had  a  school  or  artists. 

"  The  Italian  Decadence  was  rapid.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  Sixteenth  Century,  the  forms  became  bizarre,  mannered 
and  affected.  The  artist  carries  the  imitation  of  temples 
and  triumphal  arches  to  extremes;  he  neglects  carpentry, 
abuses  soft  woods  that  allow  of  summary  methods  and 
cheap  carving,  and  is  so  lavish  with  decoration  as  to  leave 
no  rest  for  the  eyes.  The  old  marquetry  of  wood  gives  place 
to  inlays  of  ivory,  mother-of-pearl  and  shell,  precious  stones, 
and  colored  marbles,  charged  with  applications  of  chased 

23 


Furniture 

silver  or  gilt  bronze.  Wood  was  painted,  gilded  and  dis- 
guised in  a  thousand  ways ;  it  was  covered  with  marquetry, 
veneer,  ivory  and  stone;  as  a  last  resort,  it  was  carved  on 
every  side  rather  than  let  it  be  visible.  Everybody  strove  to 
denaturalize  it  and  make  it  say  more  than  it  knew ;  Florence 
covered  it  with  mosaics,  or  gave  it  heroic  poses;  Venice 
twined  it  into  crossettes,  cuirs  and  volutes,  enriched  with 
gold;  Milan  enveloped  it  with  ebony  and  ivory;  Sienna 
carved  it  to  perfection,  but  with  a  dry,  poor,  cold,  sharp  tool, 
the  tool  of  a  carver  who  wants  to  show  what  he  knows. 
The  Italians  excelled  in  the  art  of  wood-work^  as  in  every- 
thing else;  but  they  comprehended  it  in  their  own  way. 
With  them  the  art  consisted  in  disguising  the  wood :  our  aim 
was  to  give  it  its  full  value." 


The  English  Renaissance  or  Elizabethan 

The  characteristics  of  the  English  Renaissance  furniture, 
known  as  "  Elizabethan,"  are  carved 
human  figures  or  medallions,  masks, 
fruits,  floral  and  chimerical  animal 
forms,  strap-work,  bulbs,  arabesques, 
nail-heads  and  gadroons.  Sometimes 
the  linen-fold,  or  tracery  of  the  old 
style,  accompanies  the  medallions  of 
the  new  on  the  same  piece  of  furniture. 
The  carving  as  a  rule  is  not  so  delicate 
"SSS'^^^^  S  as  the  contemporary  French  or  Italian. 
TURY  Oak  still  predominates,  but  walnut  is 

more  common  and  marquetry  of  native  and  foreign  woods 
is  in  great  favor.  The  principal  woods  used  in  inlaying 
were  walnut,  ebony,  rosewood,  pear,  cherry,  apple,  box, 
ash,  yew  and  holly.  Pear-wood  was  often  stained  black  to 
imitate  ebony. 

24 


J  '  >      -•}'■> 


I 


if^pSSS'^^s^'Bs^fWF'* 


Plate  IX 

Gothic  Chairs 

Munich  Museum 


Styles  and  Schools 

In  England  the  Renaissance  made  slow  progress.  Henry 
VIII.  imported  able  Italian  artists  and  workmen  for  deco- 
rating Nonsuch  House  and  other  mansions,  but  the  foreign 
novelties  did  not  bear  fruit  quickly.  ''  The  English  School 
does  not  possess  that  unity  and  assimilation  of  those  schools 
that  know  exactly  what  to  select  among  the  new  elements 
and  combine  them  skilfully  so  as  to  form  a  new,  rejuvenated 
and  yet  national  art.  Its  character  is  sometimes  Germanized 
Italian,  sometimes  bastard  Flemish,  with  a  touch  of  Angli- 
cism in  the  heads  and  costumes ;  for,  as  M.  Laborde  remarks, 
the  Englishman  is  always  insular,  and  exclusively  copies  the 
types  and  faces  of  his  own  country. 

"  At  the  very  height  of  the  Elizabethan  style,  it  is  still  a 
hard  matter  to  distinguish  between  native  wood-work  and 
that  produced  by  the  Flemings  who  took  refuge  in  England 
during  the  Spanish  oppression.  The  English  School  is 
ruder  and  more  material.  The  figure  drawing  is  very  in- 
ferior; and  there  is  a  liking  for  grotesque  attitudes,  odd 
composition  and  excessive  ornamentation.  There  is,  how- 
ever, a  style  about  the  whole ;  it  has  a  certain  air  of  sumptu- 
ous grandeur  which  we  cannot  despise.  Its  favorite  wood  is 
oak ;  sometimes  it  employs  pear,  ebony,  and  marquetry.  The 
old  inventories  also  mention  works  in  cypress-wood.*'  ^ 

Plate  XVI.  shows  a  typical  court-cupboard  of  this  period, 
of  carved  oak  with  the  bulb  ornaments  as  supports.  A  later 
court-cupboard,  also  of  carved  oak  and  American  make,  ap- 
pears on  Plate  XVII.  The  date  attributed  is  1 680-1 690. 
Both  pieces  are  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum. 

In  Flanders,  the  Renaissance  appeared  early,  and  made 
rapid  progress.  A  French  authority  thus  describes  its 
features : 

"  Gothic  by  race  and  a  carpenter  par  excellence,  the  Flem- 
ing remained  faithful  to  the  oak.     He  knew  how  to  make 

*  Bonnafif6. 

« 

25 


Furniture 

the  most  of  it  and  to  relieve  its  somewhat  rude  and  severe 
aspect  by  an  abundant  and  varied  imagination,  an  ingenious 
appropriateness  of  form,  spirited  tool- work  and  correct  de- 
sign. His  somewhat  short  and  squat  figures  do  not  possess 
the  realism  of  the  German,  the  distinction  of  the  French,  nor 
the  grand  bearing  of  the  Italian;  they  are  full,  well-fed, 
smiling,  expressive  and  of  exquisite  naturalism.  The  Flem- 
ish Renaissance  speaks  Spanish,  German  or  French,  accord- 
ing to  the  fashion,  and  so  fluently  that  we  do  not  always  dis- 
tinguish the  country  accent  on  first  hearing.  But  in  the  evil 
days  of  the  Decadence,  the  national  temperament  resumed 
its  rights;  the  school,  full  of  life  and  sap  at  the  start, 
broad  and  luxuriant  in  its  maturity,  grew  dull  and  heavy 
in  its  old  age.  Vredeman  de  Vries  laboriously  imitated  the 
delicacies  of  Du  Cerceau ;  Goltzius  closely  follows  him  with 
his  puflfy,  corpulent  figures.  The  artist  works  by  rule;  the 
decoration  is  monotonous ;  we  find  everywhere  leather,  cut, 
scooped,  shrivelled  imitations  of  carved  wood.  Soon  ebony 
and  colored  species  of  wood  imported  from  the  Indies  arrive 
in  the  market,  and  trade  produces  those  immense  works, 
monuments  of  massive  carpentry,  covered  with  diamond 
points  and  guilloche  mouldings.  The  Sixteenth  Century  has 
spoken  its  last  word."  ^ 

The  first  Flemish  designers  who  adopted  the  style  of  the 
Renaissance  were  Alaert  Claas,  Lucas  van  Leyden  and 
Cornelis  Bos.  Claas  (painter  and  engraver)  worked  in 
Utrecht  from  1520  to  1555.  Lucas  van  Leyden  (painter 
and  engraver),  whose  family  name  was  Damesz,  was  born 
in  Leyden  in  1494  and  died  in  1533.  Cornelis  Bos  (glass 
painter,  architect  and  engraver),  w^as  born  in  Bois-le-Duc 
about  1 5 10.  Another  artist  and  engraver  of  the  same  school 
of  decorative  art  was  Martin  van  Heemskerck  (1494-1574). 
Then  came  Cornelius  and  James  Floris,  whose  family  name 
*  De  Champeaux. 
26 


5  ,  >        >  >      1 


5  J  >     > 


Plate  X 

Bedstead,  dated  1530,  owned  by  the  Princess 

Palatine  Susanna 

Munich  Museum 


Styles  and  Schools 

was  De  Vriendt.  Cornelius  had  four  sons :  John,  a  potter, 
who  settled  in  Spain;  Frans  Floris  (i5i8?-7o),  a  painter; 
James  (1524-81),  a  celebrated  glass-painter;  and  Cor- 
nelius (1514-74),  a  sculptor  and  architect. 

James  was  also  a  skilful  engraver  and  was  particularly 
noted  for  his  panels,  or  compartments,  which  in  his  day 
were  such  favorite  designs. 

Cornelius  and  James  Floris  developed  a  new  style,  still 
known  as  the  Floris  style.  Contemporary  with  Floris  were 
Hans  Liefrinck  (1510-80);  Cornelis  Matsys  (1500-56); 
Jerome  Cock  (1510-70);  John  Landen- 
spelder  (6.  1511);  Adrian  Collaert  (&. 
1520);  Hans  Collaert  (i  540-1 622);  and 
Vredeman  de  Vries  (1527-?).  The  de- 
signs consist  chiefly  of  grotesques,  car- 
touches, "  cuirsj'  panels,  compartments, 
friezes,  trophies,  "  pendeloques  "  and  other  Venetian  chair,  1500, 
goldsmiths^  motives.  About  1580,  De  Tde'v^Is"  15^ 
Vries  published  Differents  Pourtraicts  de 
Menuiserie  a  scavoir,  Portaux,  Bancs,  Tables,  Escabelles, 
Buffets,  Prises,  Corniches,  Licts  de  camp,  Ornements  a 
prendre  a  ressiioir  les  mains,  Fontaines  a  laver  les  mains, 
De  Vries  was  the  pupil  of  Peter  Coeck  of  Alost  (1502- 
i55o)»  who  was  a  follower  of  Serlio,  and  owing  to  his 
varied  knowledge  and  versatility  may  be  said  to  sum  up  in 
himself  the  whole  period  of  the  Flemish  Renaissance.  In 
his  own  country,  De  Vries  was  called  the  "  king  of  archi- 
tects." He  was  contemporary  of  Du  Cerceau  and  was 
either  influenced  by  that  great  French  master,  or,  what  is 
equally  probable,  both  derived  their  style  from  the  same 
Italian  source.  Hans  Vredeman  de  Vries,  however,  is  not 
so  light  and  graceful  as  the  French  Jacques  Androuet  du 
Cerceau.  De  Vries  still  preserves  the  old  forms  which, 
however,  receive  new  ornamentation.     His  furniture  still 

27 


Furniture 

seems  designed  for  the  room  it  occupies  and  the  tables, 
benches,  bedsteads  and  chairs  are  still  extremely  heavy. 
The  old  linen-fold  pattern  dies  hard,  panelling  is  still  in 
vogue  and  little  upholstery  occurs  in  his  plates. 

The  works  of  Sebastian  Serlio  of  Bologna  were  much 
studied  in  the  Low  Countries;  and  Peter  Coeck  of  Alost 
was  largely  instrumental  in  making  them  popular  because  he 
translated  Serlio's  books  into  French  and  Flemish,  and  en- 
graved all  the  plates  with  his  own  hand,  besides  teaching 
his  theories  to  enthusiastic  pupils. 

Serlio  eventually  became  the  leading  spirit  of  the  School 
of  Fontainebleau,  established  by  Francis  I.,  to  which  so 
many  other  Italian  artists  were  attracted,  and  to  which  the 
Flemings  flocked. 

Other  designers  of  this  period  were  Jacques  van  Noye; 
Mark  Gevaerts  (1530-90) ;  Hendrick  Van  Schoel;  Martin 
de  Vos  (1531-1603);  G.  Tielt  (1580-1630);  Cornelius 
Grapheus  (1549-?);  Baltazar  Silvius  {circ.  1554);  Guil- 
helmus  de  la  Queweelerie  {circ.  1560)  ;  Peter  Miricenis 
(1520-66);  Hans  Bol  (1535-93);  Abraham  de  Bruyn 
(1538-?);  Crispin  de  Passe,  the  Elder  (1536-?);  Peter 
van  der  Borcht  (1540-1608);  Peter  Baltens  (1540-79); 
Paul  Van  Wtanvael  {circ.  1570);  Nicholas  de  Bruyn 
(1560-1635);  Clement  Perrete  {circ.  1569);  Assuerus 
Van  Londerseel  {h.  1548) ;  Jerome  Wierix  {h.  1551) ;  John 
Wierix  {b.  1550);  John  Sadeler  (1550-1610);  Raphael 
Sadeler  (i  555-1628);  ^gidius  Sadeler  (i  570-1629); 
Dominic  Custode  {h.  1560) ;  Ger.  Groningus;  Cornells  Galle 
(157Q-1641);  Philip  Galle  (1537-1612);  Theodore  Galle 
{h.  1560);  Cornelis  Dankherts  {h.  1561);  John  Sambuci 
{circ.  1574);  Francis  Sweert  {circ.  1690);  Judocus 
Hondius    (i 563-1 611);  James   Hannervogt. 


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Styles  and  Schools 


Louis  XIII.  Style 

In  the  Seventeenth  Century,  the  sculptured  furniture  of 
the  time  of  Henri  IV.  was  superseded  by  the  simpler  styles 
of  Louis  XIII.  which  we  see  in  the  engravings  by  Abraham 
Bosse.  The  carver  and  sculptor  was  succeeded  by  the  joiner 
and  turner  (memiisier) ,  finely  carved  columns  were  sup- 
planted by  uprights,  every  piece  of  furniture  was  rectangu- 
lar, or  nearly  so;  and  draperies  became  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance. Everything  was  hidden :  the  curtains  of  the  bed 
completely  covered  the  framework ;  and,  when  drawn,  made 
the  bed  a  perfect  square.  The  curtains  ^ 
were  often  decorated  with  braid  or  lace 
applied  so  as  to  form  little  squares.  The 
table,  likewise,  disappeared  beneath  the 
cloth,  which  was  put  on  very  tightly  across 
the  slab  and  then  flowed  in  ample  folds  ^=°'  ^^^  ^^^^^ 
at  each  corner.  The  cloth  not  only  reached  but  often 
lay  upon  the  floor.  Many  of  the  chairs  of  the  day  were 
described  as  "  in  the  Italian  taste,"  —  that  is,  covered  with 
velvet  and  trimmed  with  lace,  or  fringe. 

The  monumental  and  ornate  cabinets,  imported  from 
Germany,  Italy  and  Flanders,  were  a  novelty;  and  the 
Italian  taste  brought  to  France  the  vogue  of  incrustations  of 
mosaics,  hard  stones,  painted  plates,  mother-of-pearl,  ivory, 
and  amber.  Brass  inlay  and  tortoise-shell  work  on  a  back- 
ground of  wood  mark  the  beginning  of  the  style  that  was 
soon  to  bear  the  name  of  Boulle. 

Regarding  the  general  form  of  the  furniture  of  this  period 
there  is  a  tendency  to  divide  pieces  into  two  unequal  parts 
(the  upper  part  being  the  shorter),  by  means  of  a  cornice,, 
shelf,  or  some  decorative  line:  cabinets,  armoires,  etc.,  are 
monumental  and  architectural,  surmounted  by  a  broken  pedi- 

29 


Furniture 

ment.  In  many  cases,  the  mouldings  frame  panels  in  which 
the  square  form  predominates.  Chairs  are  square,  as  are  the 
bedsteads;  the  twisted  column,  spiral  leg,  and  the  baluster 
grow  ever  in  popularity;  console-tables  and  gueridons  in- 
crease in  favor;  and  heavy  mirror-frames  become  an  im- 
portant feature  of  decoration. 

The  hexagon,  which  was  so  much  used  in  the  Henri  II. 
period,  is  now  supplanted  by  the  octagon :  the  cartouche  is 
a  favorite  ornament;  is  wider  than  it  is  high;  and  swells 
out  into  an  exaggerated  convex  curve.  Balusters  also  be- 
come corpulent,  as  do  vases.  The  latter,  moreover,  stand  on 
small  bases. 

Of  the  Style  Louis  Treize,  Rouaix  says :  "  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Seventeenth  Century,  Marie  de'  Medicis 
brought  to  France  the  Italians  of  the  Decadence,  with 
their  bizarre  taste,  their  abuse  of  theatrical  and  compli- 
cated decoration  and  their  passion  for  ebony  and  colored 
woods.  The  value  of  the  work  no  longer  consisted  in  the 
modelling  of  the  reliefs,  the  variety  of  the  planes,  and  the 
play  of  light  and  shade,  but  in  the  variety  of  color  and  the 
variety  of  the  material.  The  art  of  furniture  suffered  a 
complete  change  of  physiognomy;  assembled  panels  were 
given  up  in  favor  of  smooth  surfaces  that  would  allow  the 
inlay  of  tiny  leaves,  making  the  most  of  costly  woods  and 
their  coloration.  Forsaken  by  fashion,  furniture  of  walnut 
wood  rapidly  declined.  The  antique  column,  straight  and 
strong,  became  bent  and  twisted ;  the  used-up,  commonplace 
ornament  had  no  longer  any  youth  or  energy.  The  carver 
yielded  first  place  to  the  inlayer. 

"  The  faces  of  the  mascarons  are  chubby  and  expression- 
less and  the  cornucopias,  which  are  so  much  used,  are  very 
slender,  although  they  are  overflowing  with  fruits.  Apples  and 
pears  are  the  favorite  fruits.  The  garlands  are  composed 
of  fruits  and  leaves  and  very  seldom  are  any  flowers  used." 

30 


Plate  XII 
Burgundian  Dressoir  (1570) 


Styles  and  Schools 

The  Louis  XIII.  Style  is  dominated  by  the  Flemish  spirit. 
Rubens  was  called  to  Paris  by  Marie  de'  Medicis  in  1625 
and  set  the  fashion  in  decorative  art.  Simon  Vouet  was  the 
chief  of  the  French  masters.  The  compositions  of  Abraham 
Bosse,  Delia  Bella,  Mitelli  and  Legare  also  illustrate  the 
style.  "  The  characteristic  impression  is  one  of  heaviness 
and  weariness.  The  furniture  is  sombre.  Dark  tones  prevail 
and  the  marquetry  of  this  period,  consisting  of  metal,  wood 
and  tortoise-shell,  is  somewhat  severe  and  cold.  The  orna- 
ment comprises  round,  inflated  cartouches,  massive  balusters, 
twisted  columns,  heavy  garlands  (of  large  fruits,  apples  and 
pears,  with  few  leaves),  and  strong  mouldings  almost  bare 
of  ornament."  ^ 

The  Rubens  Style 

At  this  period,  the  Rubens  Style  dominated  everything  in 
France.  Rubens  had  spent  eight  years  in  Mantua  and  we  see 
in  his  designs  a  fusion  of  Flemish  and  Italian  influences. 
Two  years  after  Rubens's  death,  Crispin  van  den  Passe  pub- 
lished at  Amsterdam  in  1642  his  Boutique  Menuiserie,  which 
contains  several  plates  of  furniture.  The  Rubens  Style  had 
not  abated. 

Simon  Vouet  was  one  of  the  artists  employed  by  the 
splendor-loving  Cardinal  Richelieu  to  decorate  his  Palais 
Royal  and  Castle  of  Rueil. 

Goldsmiths  were  greatly  influential  in  forming  the  new 
style;  and  it  is  difficult  in  looking  over  the  work  of  all  the 
designers  of  the  period  to  determine  what  belongs  to  the 
reigning  fashion  and  what  is  original.  One  of  the  most 
original  artists  is  generally  conceded  to  be  Delia  Bella,  "  who 
exhibited  a  personality  so  free  from  all  influences  that  a 
goodly  number  of  his  models  would  more  appropriately  pass 

*  Rouaiz. 
31 


Furniture 

as  belonging  to  the  style  of  Louis  XIV.  rather  than  to  that  of 
Louis  XIIL" 

The  Genre  Auriculaire 

One  of  the  most  curious  motives  of  ornamentation  in 
this  period  was  the  human  ear.  The  lines  of  the  outer 
rim  and  the  lobe,  as  well  as  those  of  the  whole  ear,  were 
carried  to  excess  and  distorted  and  tortured  into  scrolls  and 
curves  of  all  sizes  and  shapes.  Rabel  was  one  of  the  chief 
exponents  of  the  genre  auriculaire  (from  auricle)  in  France. 
Several  Dutch  designers  published  plates  of  drawings,  among 
whom  were  John  Lutma  and  Gerbrandt  van  den  Eeckhout; 
but  it  was  in  Germany  that  this  peculiar  style  met  with  the 
greatest  favor.  The  plates  of  Friederich  Unteutsch,  pub- 
lished in  Frankfort  in  1650,  show  the  ear  prominent  as  an 
ornament  on  all  kinds  of  furniture;  and  nothing  could  be 
more  eccentric. 

Three  chairs  from  the  Parma  Museum  of  Antiquities 
(Plate  XVIIL)  exemplify  Italian  taste  in  the  second  half 
of  the  Seventeenth  Century.  The  legs,  stretchers  and  arms 
show  whence  the  French  designers  under  Louis  XIV.  drew 
their  inspiration.  The  backs  also  have  a  family  likeness  to 
chairs  that  came  into  fashion  later  in  England,  France  and 
Holland.  The  scroll  work  on  the  chair  in  the  centre  is  almost 
as  unrestrained  as  in  the  designs  of  Meissonnier  and  Chip- 
pendale. The  curves  of  the  rococo  and  the  genre  auriculaire 
are  both  present. 

When  we  examine  the  old  furniture  of  the  palaces  and 
museums  of  Italy,  wx  are  sometimes  amazed  to  find  that  the 
forms  and  styles  particularly  of  seats  are  almost  identical 
with  those  of  France,  England,  or  the  Netherlands.  Thus, 
the  beautiful  chair  covered  with  Cordovan  leather  on 
Plate  XIX.,  owned  by  Count  Stefano  Orsetti  in  Lucca,  is  a 
product  of  the  Seventeenth  Century;    and  yet  the  scrolled 

32 


Plate  XIII 

Carved  Bedstead,  Francois  I. 
Cluny  Museum 


Styles  and  Schools 


bars  that  connect  the  legs  and  the  legs  themselves  greatly 
resemble  the  Dutch  furniture  made  for  Hampton  Court  in 
1690.  Again,  the  chair,  Plate  XX.,  No.  3,  is  similar  in  its 
turned  supports,  front  rail  and  the  tall  panelled  back  to  the 
cane  chairs  in  vogue  under  Charles  II.  and  William  and 
Mary ;  and  yet  it  is  a  Roman  chair  of  the  Seventeenth  Cen- 
tury, now  in  the  Museo  Civico,  Milan. 

It  is  well  known  that  famous  French  and  Flemish  masters 
of  decorative  design  studied  in  Italy  in  the  Sixteenth,  Seven- 
teenth and  Eighteenth  Centuries,  but  the  Italians  did  not 
seek  inspiration  north  of  the  Alps,  so  that  when  we  find 
identical  forms,  we  look  to  Italy  as  the  leader,  or  seek  a 
common  origin. 

The  Jacobean  Period 

The  style  of  furniture  in  the  Jacobean  period  differed  but 
little  from  the  Elizabethan,  though  it  showed  less  originality 
and  became  more  formal. 

"  Designs  grew  flatter  and  the  treatment  of  floral  orna- 
ment more  stiff  and  conventional.  Another  feature  of  the 
decoration  was  that  ornaments  were  frequently  applied  and 
not  cut  out  of  the  solid.  The  most  prominent  details  of  the 
ornament  was  strap- work  and  half  balusters  or  drops ;  jewels 
and  bosses  were  also  common.  Geometrical  arrangements 
of  panelling  such  as  a  lozenge-shaped  panel  within  a  square 
or  rectangle  surrounded  by  four  L-shaped  panels  frequently 
occur."  ^ 

This  style  lasted  until  the  end  of  the  century. 

Carved  figures  were  gradually  supplanted  by  turned  sup- 
ports and  uprights;  and  the  surfaces  were  panelled  with 
geometrical  designs  and  decorated  with  applied  ornaments 
of  real  or  imitation  ebony. 

1  PoUen. 
33 


Furniture 

Plate  XXI.  represents  a  Court  cupboard  of  this  character 
—  a  style  that  was  long  in  vogue  in  England's  colonies. 
Pieces  of  this  type  are  occasionally  found  in  the  old  homes 
of  New  England. 

Sir  Henry  Wotton,  ambassador  to  Venice  in  1604,  sent 
home  some  specimens  of  Italian  wood-carving  and  pub- 
lished Elements  of  Architecture;  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  sent 
for  a  Flemish  workman  to  carve  his  fine  oak  chimney-piece 
at  his  house  in  Youghal,  Ireland ;  and  in  the  reign  of  James 
I.,  Inigo  Jones,  "the  English  Vitruvius,"  returned  from 
Italy  as  a  follower  of  Palladio.  The  Great  Fire  of  London 
(1666)  brought  Sir  Christopher  Wren's  talents  into  special 
prominence. 

The  Tudor  Style  died  hard,  however,  and  some  of  the 
old  motives  of  carving  lingered  long;  but  the  new  styles 
had  taken  root. 

Pear- wood,  owing  to  the  evenness  of  the  grain  and  the 
beautiful  color,  has  always  been  a  favorite  with  English 
carvers  and  cabinet-makers,  especially  for  jewel-boxes  and 
small  caskets.  Grinling  Gibbons  worked  much  in  this  wood, 
and  at  this  period  produced  his  beautiful  garlands  of  fruits 
and  flowers  for  overmantels  and  frames  that  are  still  the 
admiration  and  despair  of  carvers. 

Exotic  woods  began  to  be  imported  into  the  Low  Countries 
and  England  by  the  traders  with  the  East  and  the  New 
World;  and  so,  in  addition  to  oak,  walnut,  cedar,  olive  and 
nutwood,  there  were,  among  other  novelties,  king-wood 
from  Brazil,  a  hard  wood  with  black  veins  on  a  chocolate 
ground ;  pale  red  beef -wood  from  New  Holland,  much  used 
for  borders ;  palissandre,  or  violet  wood,  from  New  Guinea, 
used  for  inlays  on  fine  furniture  and  for  such  fine  pieces  as 
commodes,  etc. ;  and  sacredaan,  or  Java  mahogany,  yellow, 
or  pale  orange  in  color,  very  hard  and  very  fragrant. 

A  favorite  ornament  for  table-legs,  posts  of  bedsteads  and 

34 


Plate  XIV 

Armoire  lie  de  France.     Middle 
of  Sixteenth  Century 


Styles  and  Schools 


supports  of  cupboards  and  cabinets  was  the  swelling  bulb. 
This  was  sometimes  carved  with  a  leaf  or  floral  device  and 
sometimes  stained  black.  Mouldings  and  panels  were  much 
used,  and  the  spindle  ornament,  cut  in  half,  stained  black  and 
applied  to  the  surface.  Lozenges  and  ovals  were  also  stained 
black  and  applied  in  this  style.  Turned 
furniture  was  fast  supplanting  carved  ar- 
ticles and  the  Age  of  Oak  was  fast  disap- 
pearing. Lacquer  varnish  was  much  used 
in  England,  and  there  was  quite  a  rage  for 
"  painted  and  japanned  "  furniture. 

Another  favorite  embellishment  of  broad 
surfaces  was  to  inlay  them  with  woods  of 
different  colors  in  various  designs.  The  chair-tableTseven- 
latter  taste  rapidly  advanced  during  this  teenth  ceotury 
century  with  the  constantly  increasing  importation  of  the 
beautiful  exotic  woods  from  the  East  and  West  Indies. 
Until  the  Sixteenth  Century,  marquetry  seems  to  have  con- 
sisted entirely  of  ivory  and  ebony;  but  now  strange  woods 
were  employed.  In  the  famous  pamphlet,  L'Isle  des  Herma- 
phrodites, directed  against  Henri  III.  and  his  Court,  the 
author  says :  "As  for  the  furniture,  we  should  like  to  have 
it  all  of  gold,  silver,  and  marquetry,  and  the  pieces,  es- 
pecially the  canopies  of  the  beds,  if  possible,  of  cedar,  rose, 
and  other  odoriferous  woods,  unless  you  would  rather  have 
them  of  ebony  or  ivory." 

The  Italians  of  the  Decadence  had  a  passion  for  ebony 
and  colored  woods,  and  theatrical  and  complicated  deco- 
rations. Furniture  completely  changed  its  physiognomy; 
the  decorative  panels  with  all  their  ornaments  are  re- 
nounced for  plain  surfaces  on  which  marquetry  can  be 
displayed  to  advantage.  Forsaken  by  fashion,  walnut  drops 
out  of  use;  profiles  are  multiplied;  the  fine  cuirs  that  were 
cut  in  solid  bosses  sprawl  about  in  an  enervated,  weakened 

35 


Furniture 

fashion;  the  straight,  firm,  and  springing  Classic  column 
now  becomes  twisted  and  distorted;  and  the  stale  and  banal 
decoration  has  neither  sinews  nor  youth.  The  sculptor 
yields  his  place  to  the  marquetry  worker  and  the  carpenter 
(menuisier)  becomes  a  cabinet-maker  (ebeniste). 

At  this  period  Italy  carried  to  perfection  the  peculiar 
inlay  of  rare  and  polished  marbles,  agates,  pebbles  and 
lapis-lazuli  called  pietra  dura  and  the  style  was  imitated 
in  other  countries;  so  that  during  the  Decadence  the  old 
marquetry  of  wood  gave  place  to  incrustrations  of  mother- 
of-pearl,  shell,  precious  stones,  colored  marbles,  painted 
glass,  and  the  furniture  was  made  even  more  sumptuous  by 
the  additions  of  key-plates,  handles,  feet  and  other  trim- 
mings, or  mounts,  of  silver  or  gilded  bronze  (or-moulu). 
A  new  kind  of  marquetry  made  its  appearance  in  the  Seven- 
teenth Century,  and  seems  to  have  originated  in  the  Low 
Countries.  It  consisted  of  large  designs  of  flowers,  par- 
ticularly the  tulip,  birds  and  foliage  represented  in  various 
woods  very  brightly  dyed.  Bits  of  ivory  or  mother-of- 
pearl  were  added  to  give  brightness  to  the  eyes  of  the  birds 
and  the  petals  of  the  flowers.  This  kind  of  marquetry  was 
very  popular  in  England  when  William  and  Mary  reigned, 
when  Dutch  taste  dominated  the  fashions  in  everything;  and 
was  probably  inspired  by  the  East. 

On  Plates  XXII.  and  XXIII.  a  very  interesting  cabinet 
of  this  style  is  exhibited,  open  and  closed.  This  piece 
belongs  to  the  Metropolitan  Museum  and  is  attributed  to  the 
reign  of  Queen  Anne.  The  decoration  is  in  the  "  Chinese  " 
style. 

Oriental  Influences 

Here  we  may  perhaps  pause  to  review  the  effect  produced 
by  early  contact  with  the  East. 

During  the  Sixteenth  Century,  while  the  Portuguese  had 

36 


Plate  XV 
Chair.     Lyonnais.     Sixteenth  Century 


Styles  and  Schools 


a  monopoly  of  the  trade  of  the  Far  East,  a  great  deal  of 
Oriental  furniture  was  brought  to  Lisbon,  and  from  there 
carried  to  Northern  Europe.  In  Elizabethan  days  also, 
piratical  navigators  often  brought  Portuguese  cargoes  into 
English  ports,  and  consequently  we  find  lacquer  and  porce- 
lain in  the  inventories  of  the  rich. 

From  1497,  when  Vasco  da  Gama  rounded  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  and  discovered  the  sea  route  to  India,  the  Por- 
tuguese held  a  monopoly  of  the  trade  of  the  Far  East  for 
a  hundred  years.  During  that  time,  a  vast  amount  of 
Oriental  wares  was  brought  into  the  Tagus  and  distributed 
thence  through  Northern  Europe,  principally  by  Dutch  ships, 
but  the  Renaissance  was  in  full  flower,  and  the  exotics 
made  no  impression  on  the  style  of  the  period.  This  is 
strange,  because  the  importations  were  considerable.  Be- 
tween 1497  ^^^  1 52 1  Lisbon  sent  out  220  ships. 

Writing  in  1601,  De  Laval  informs  us  that  three  or  four 
carracks  went  out  from  Lisbon  every  year.  They  were  the 
largest  vessels  in  the  world,  being  of  1500  and  2000  tons 
burden,  having  four  decks,  and  not  being  able  to  float  in 
less  than  ten  fathoms  of  water.  It  took  them  three  years 
to  make  the  voyage  to  Goa,  Cochin,  Malacca,  Sunda,  Ma- 
cao, and  Japan,  and  back.  These  Portuguese  ships  therefore 
brought  home  all  the  choice  wares  and  products  of  India, 
China,  Japan  and  the  Spice  Islands. 

De  Laval  says  it  is  impossible  to  enumerate  all  the  rare 
and  beautiful  things  imported.  Among  those  he  mentions 
are  "  great  store  of  gilded  woodwork,  such  as  all  sorts  of 
vessels  and  furniture  lacquered,  varnished  and  gilded  with 
a  thousand  pretty  designs,  all  kinds  of  silk  stuffs,  much 
porcelain  ware,  many  boxes,  plates  and  baskets  made  of 
little  reeds  covered  with  lacquer  and  varnished  in  all  colors, 
gilded  and  patterned.  Among  other  things,  I  should  men- 
tion a  great  number  of  cabinets  of  all  patterns  in  the  fashion 

37 


Furniture 

of  those  of  Germany.  This  is  an  article  of  the  most  perfect 
and  of  the  finest  workmanship  to  be  seen  anywhere;  for 
they  are  all  of  choice  woods  and  inlaid  with  ivory,  mother- 
of-pearl  and  precious  stones :  in  place  of  iron  they  are 
mounted  with  gold.  The  Portuguese  call  them  Escritorios 
de  la  Chine/' 

The  exclusive  right  of  the  Portuguese  to  the  Eastern 
trade  was  not  always  respected  by  English  and  Dutch  ad- 
venturers, for  London  and  Amsterdam  sometimes  received 
diplomatic  protests  against  violent  intrusion,  and  irregular 
trade. 

In  1580,  Philip  IL,  the  master  of  the  revolted  Nether- 
lands, seized  Portugal,  and,  of  course,  closed  Lisbon  and  all 
other  ports  against  Dutch  and  English  ships.  It  was  not 
long  before  depredations  by  the  latter  were  heard  of  in  the 
Indian  Ocean.  In  1598,  Cecil's  Lisbon  agent  reports  that 
three  carracks  have  arrived  from  India,  and  one  was  burnt 
there  full  laden.  They  bring  news  that  two  English  ships 
in  India  have  taken  two  Portugal  ships  rich  with  treasure 
that  were  on  their  voyage  from  Goa  to  China.  This  gives 
point  to  De  Laval's  remark  (1601)  that  the  carracks  are 
sent  out  *'  to  return  if  they  can." 

In  1602,  both  the  Dutch  and  English  East  India  Com- 
panies were  established;  and  for  the  rest  of  the  century 
Amsterdam  supplanted  Lisbon  as  the  emporium  of  Eastern 
w^ares.  In  the  bitter  competition  that  ensued,  the  Dutch 
outstripped  the  English ;  and  the  Magazine  of  the  Indies  in 
Amsterdam  became  the  most  important  mart  in  Europe  for 
porcelain  and  lacquer  goods.  London,  however,  received 
large  shipments.  As  early  as  161 9,  the  inventory  of  the 
Earl  of  Northampton's  effects  includes  the  following  arti- 
cles from  Far  Cathay :  "  A  China  *  guilte  cabonett '  upon  a 
frame ;  a  large  square  China  work  table  and  frame  of  black 
varnish  and  gold;   one  fair  crimson  velvet  chair  richly  em- 

38 


Plate  XVI 

Carved  Oak  Court-Cupboard.     Tudor  Period 
Metropolitan  Museum 


C        C  (   (      (  (  c 


Styles  and  Schools 

bossed  with  copper  and  spread  eagles  and  blue  and  white 
flowers  China  work,  the  frame  painted  with  gold,  one  small 
table  of  China  work  in  gold  and  colors  with  flies  and  worms, 
a  little  gilded  couch  carved  and  cut,  an  ebony  cabinet  inlaid 
with  mother-of-pearl;  a  very  large  bedstead  with  wreathed 
pillars  for  head,  sides  and  feet  all  colored  black  and  gold; 
a  folding  Indian  screen;  a  China  cushion  embroidered  with 
birds,  beasts  and  flowers;  and  a  field-bedstead  of  China 
work  black  and  silver." 

It  was  the  porcelain  and  the  smooth  lacquered  surfaces 
with  contrasted  colors  that  appealed  to  the  Dutch  and 
English;  at  first,  they  did  not  care  for  the  designs  of  the 
artists  of  the  East.  We  know  this  because  they  sent  out 
patterns  for  the  decorations  of  both  porcelain  and  wood- 
work to  suit  the  taste  of  the  home  market.  The  Chinese 
found  it  impossible  to  execute  some  of  the  orders.  A  Jesuit 
missionary  of  the  day  reported :  "  European  merchants  often 
order  from  the  Chinese  workmen  porcelain  plaques  to  form 
the  top  of  a  table,  or  back  of  a  chair,  or  frame  of  a  picture. 
These  works  are  impossible ;  the  greatest  length  and  width 
of  a  plate  is  about  one  foot.  If  they  are  made  larger  than 
that,  no  matter  how  thick,  they  bend." 

The  Dutch  East  India  Company  imported  enormous 
quantities  of  porcelain:  the  fleets  of  1664-5  alone  brought 
in  more  than  sixty  thousand  pieces.  Before  this,  however, 
the  Dutch  had  begun  to  imitate  the  Oriental  wares  with 
great  success,  both  in  clay  and  varnish.  Delft  pottery  soon 
became  famous;  and  japanning  in  close  imitation  of  lacquer 
was  soon  an  important  industry  both  in  Holland  and  Eng- 
land. Home  labor,  however,  cost  more  than  foreign;  and 
European  manufacturers  found  it  cheaper  to  have  the  panels, 
etc.,  decorated  abroad  and  then  make  them  up  into  furniture 
at  home.  This  aroused  great  discontent  in  the  trade  towards 
the  end  of  the  century.    The  English  japanners  complained 

39 


Furniture 

to  the  government,  reciting  their  grievances.  In  1702,  one 
complaint  states  that  in  1672  the  East  India  Company  sent 
agents  abroad  with  a  great  quantity  of  English  patterns  for 
the  Indians  to  manufacture  the  wares  most  marketable 
in  England  and  other  European  countries.  The  cargoes 
of  three  ships  sold  at  the  East  India  House  in  1700  give 
evidence  that  much  lacquer-work  was  made  up  in  England. 
The  sale  of  the  chinaware  alone  realized  £150,000;  and  the 
other  articles  as  much  more.    These  included : 

Fans £38,557 

Lacquered  sticks  for  fans 13,470 

Lacquered  trunks,  escritoires,  bowls,  cups,  dishes    .    .    .  10,500 

Lacquered  inlaid  tables 189 

Lacquered  panels,  in  frames,  painted  and  carved  for  rooms  47 

Lacquered  boards      178 

Lacquered  brushes 3,099 

Lacquered  tables  (not  inlaid) 277 

Lacquered  fans  for  fire 174 

Lacquered  boards  for  screens 54 

Screens  set  in  frames 71 

Paper  josses      i>799 

Shells  double  gilt      281 

Paper  painted  for  fans,  images,  pictures,  brass  for  lanterns 
and  embroideries. 

The  tall  japanned  clocks  that  were  so  popular  for  nearly 
a  century  after  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary  in  1689, 
must  have  been  constructed  in  England  with  the  above- 
mentioned  imported  boards  or  panels,  when  not  of  home 
manufacture,  because  the  tall  clock  was  not  in  vogue  in  the 
East.  Only  the  table  clock  was  used  there,  and  it  seems 
that  even  this  was  a  Euporean  novelty  in  the  Sixteenth 
Century.  De  Laval  (1601)  writes  that  among  the  goods 
taken  by  the  Portuguese  from  Goa  to  China  are  "  all  sorts 
of  glass  and  crystal  ware  and  clocks  which  are  highly 

40 


*«(^,»i' 


Plate  XVII 

Court  or  Press  Cupboard.     American,     (i 680-1 690) 
Metropolitan  Museum 


Styles  and  Schools 

prized  by  the  Chinese."  The  latter  soon  profited  from  the 
models,  for  Samuedo  says  in  his  History  of  China: 
"  The  workmanship  of  Europe  which  they  most  admired 
was  our  clocks,  but  now  they  make  of  them  such  as  are  set 
upon  tables,  very  good  ones."  The  tall  case-of -drawers  on 
Plate  XXIV.  is  a  fine  example  of  this  lacquered  work.  Each 
drawer  presents  a  different  picture  of  Chinese  scenes  — 
houses,  trees,  birds,  dragons,  etc.  The  piece  is  in  two  parts. 
The  case-of -drawers  consists  of  four  drawers  and  the 
stand  of  one  long  drawer  and  three  short  drawers  below. 
In  modern  parlance  this  is  frequently  called  a  *'  high  boy  " 
and  the  stand  is  sometimes  used  as  a  "  low  boy."  These 
names,  however,  never  appear  in  the  inventories.  The 
cabriole  legs  with  hoof  feet  preceded  those  of  the  claw- 
and-ball. 

The  craze  for  the  Chinese  style  of  ornament  lasted  in 
England  till  the  accession  of  George  III.  Books  of  design 
containing  so-called  Chinese  furniture  had  appeared  before 
Chippendale,  whose  Director  caters  to  the  French,  Gothic, 
and  Chinese  tastes  of  the  middle  of  the  century.  Sir  William 
Chambers  wrote  his  book  Designs  of  Chinese  Buildings, 
Furniture,  Dresses,  Machines,  and  Utensils  (1757),  partly, 
as  he  explains  in  the  preface,  to  put  a  stop  to  "  the  extraor- 
dinary fancies  that  daily  appear  under  the  name  of  Chinese, 
though  most  of  them  are  mere  inventions,  the  rest  copies 
from  the  lame  representations  found  on  porcelain  and  paper 
hangings," 

This  authority  resided  for  some  time  in  Canton,  and  there- 
fore was  able  to  write  a  trustworthy  description  of  Chinese 
architecture  and  house  decoration.     He  says: 

"  The  movables  of  the  saloon  consist  of  chairs,  stools, 
and  tables;  made  sometimes  of  rosewood,  ebony,  or 
lacquered  work,  and  sometimes  of  bamboo  only,  which  is 
cheap,  and,  nevertheless,  very  neat.     When  the  movables 

41 


Furniture 

are  of  wood,  the  seats  of  the  stools  are  often  of  marble  or 
porcelain,  which,  though  hard  to  sit  on,  are  far  from  un- 
pleasant in  a  climate  where  the  summer  heats  are  so  ex- 
cessive. In  the  corners  of  the  rooms  are  stands  four  or 
five  feet  high,  on  which  they  set  plates  of  citrons,  and  other 
fragrant  fruits,  or  branches  of  coral  in  vases  of  porcelain, 
and  glass  globes  containing  goldfish,  together  with  a  certain 
weed  somewhat  resembling  fennel;  on  such  tables  as  are 
intended  for  ornament  only  they  also  place  the  little  land- 
scapes, composed  of  rocks,  shrubs,  and  a  kind  of  lily  that 
grows  among  pebbles  covered  with  water.  Sometimes,  also, 
they  have  artificial  landscapes  made  of  ivory,  crystal,  amber, 
pearls,  and  various  stones.  I  have  seen  some  of  these  that 
cost  over  300  guineas,  but  they  are  at  least  mere  baubles, 
and  miserable  imitations  of  Nature.  Besides  these  land- 
scapes they  adorn  their  tables  with  several  vases  of  por- 
celain, and  little  vases  of  copper,  which  are  held  in  great 
esteem.  These  are  generally  of  simple  and  pleasing  forms. 
The  Chinese  say  they  were  made  two  thousand  years  ago, 
by  some  of  their  celebrated  artists,  and  such  as  are  real 
antiques  (for  there  are  many  counterfeits)  they  buy  at  an 
extravagant  price,  giving  sometimes  no  less  than  £300  ster- 
ling for  one  of  them. 

"  The  bedroom  is  divided  from  the  saloon  by  a  partition 
of  folding  doors,  which,  when  the  weather  is  hot,  are  in 
the  night  thrown  open  to  admit  the  air.  It  is  very  small,  and 
contains  no  other  furniture  than  the  bed,  and  some  varnished 
chests  in  which  they  keep  their  apparel.  The  beds  are  very 
magnificent;  the  bedsteads  are  made  much  like  ours  in 
Europe  —  of  rosewood,  carved,  or  lacquered  work :  the 
curtains  are  of  taffeta  or  gauze,  sometimes  flowered  with 
gold  and  commonly  either  blue  or  purple.  About  the  top 
a  slip  of  white  satin,  a  foot  in  breadth,  runs  all  round,  on 
which  are  painted  in  panels  different  figures  —  flower  pieces, 

42 


C/3 

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Styles  and  Schools 


landscapes,  and  conversation  pieces  interspersed  with  moral 
sentences  and  fables  written  in  Indian  ink." 

France  took  longer  than  Holland  or  England  to  feel 
the  influence  of  the  East.  In  the  early  years  of  the  century, 
as  we  have  seen,  decoration  was  subject  to  the  Italians 
patronized  by  Marie  de'  Medicis,  and  then  came  the  style 
Rubens.  In  the  next  generation,  Mazarin  was  a  leading 
patron  of  Oriental  art,  which  was  apparently  a  revelation 
to  the  Court.  We  learn  from  the  diary  of  La  Grande 
Mademoiselle,  the  eccentric  cousin  of  Louis  XIV.,  that  in 
1658,  the  Cardinal  gave  a  lottery  in  which  everybody  got 
a  prize.  Beforehand,  he  gave  her,  in  company  with  Anne  of 
Austria,  Queen  Henrietta  Maria  and  her  daughter,  a  private 
view  of  the  treasures,  taking  them  into  a  gallery,  where, 
among  other  treasures  displayed,  were  "all  the  beautiful 
things  that  come  from  China." 

At  this  time,  Oriental  goods  reached  Paris  by  way  of 
Amsterdam  or  London.  The  Jesuit  missionaries  contrib- 
uted largely  to  the  knowledge  of  their  countrymen  in  this 
field.  In  1660,  John  Evelyn,  living  in  voluntary  exile  in 
Paris,  notes  in  his  diary: 

"  One  Tomson,  a  Jesuit,  showed  me  such  a  collection  of 
rarities,  sent  from  the  Jesuits  of  Japan  and  China  to  their 
Order  at  Paris  as  a  present  to  be  received  in  their  depository, 
but  brought  to  London  by  the  East  India  ships  for  them, 
as  in  my  life  I  had  not  seen.  The  chief  things  were  rhi- 
nosceros  horns,  glorious  vests  wrought  and  embroidered 
on  cloth-of-gold,  but  with  such  lively  colors  that  for  splendor 
and  vividness  we  have  nothing  in  Europe  that  approaches 
it;  fans  like  those  our  ladies  use,  but  much  larger,  and 
with  long  handles  curiously  carved  and  filled  with  Chinese 
characters;  a  sort  of  paper  very  broad,  thin  and  fine,  like 
abortive  parchment,^  and  exquisitely  polished,  of  an  amber 

*  Fine  vellum. 
43 


Furniture 

yellow,  exceedingly  glorious  and  pretty  to  look  on;  several 
other  sorts  of  paper,  some  written,  others  printed;  prints 
of  landscapes,  their  idols,  saints,  pagods,  of  most  ugly, 
serpentine,  monstrous,  and  hideous  shapes,  to  which  they 
paid  devotion;  pictures  of  men  and  countries  rarely  printed 
on  a  sort  of  gum'd  calico,  transparent  as  glasse;  flowers, 
trees,  beasts,  birds,  etc.,  excellently  wrought  in  a  sort  of 
sieve  silk  very  naturall." 

Louis  XIV.  Style 

In  1667,  the  manufactory  of  the  Gobelins  was  established 
with  the  painter  Le  Brun  as  director.  The  beautiful  work 
of  all  kinds  that  was  sent  from  there  was  greatly  respon- 
sible for  changing  the  styles  of  the  day.  French  taste 
began  to  dominate  Europe;  and  when  the  French  Court 
removed  to  Versailles  in  1682,  the  furnishing  of  which  had 
cost  the  king  a  fortune,  and  for  which  nearly  everything 
had  been  supplied  by  the  Gobelins  works,  the  eyes  of  the 
world  were  turned  to  the  splendors  of  the  Sun-King. 

The  characteristic  design  of  this  period  consists  of  the 
straight  line  and  the  curve.  The  curve  is  bold.  Interlaced 
bars,  or  bars  ending  in  scrolls,  are  found  in  the  forms  of 
furniture,  in  the  inlays  of  brass  and  wood  and  upon  the  walls 
of  rooms.  The  architectural  mouldings  are  stout  and  wide 
and  are  rich  in  such  classic  ornaments  as  palm-leaves  and 
ovolos.  The  geometrical  ensemble  is  always  simple:  fur- 
niture is  often  rectangular,  put  together  very  solidly  and  is 
always  rather  heavy.  The  bases  and  supports  rest  firmly 
on  the  floor  and  are  usually  close  to  it  and  the  straining- 
rails  are  heavy  as  will  be  noticed  in  the  chair  on  Plate  XXV. 
Tables  are  supported  on  pilasters,  or  massive  columns;  and 
the  bombe  sweep  often  appears  in  such  articles  as  consoles 
and  commodes  (see  Plate  XXVI. ). 

44 


Seventeenth  Century  Arm-Chair  covered  with  Cordovan 

Leather 
Lucca 


Styles  and  Schools 

The  general  style  of  the  ornamentation,  particularly  when 
Lepautre  dominated  the  general  taste,  was  Roman,  accord- 
ing perfectly  with  the  style  of  the  architecture,  which  was 
also  Roman  and  heroic.  Classic  trophies  are  massed  to- 
gether like  the  spoils  of  battle.  We  find  cuirasses,  plumed 
helmets,  shields,  lictor's  fasces,  laurel  wreaths,  clubs  and 
swords;  allegorical  divinities  representing  vanquished 
Rivers;  mythological  dieties;  winged  Victories;  Victories 
blowing  trumpets;  River-gods  leaning  on  their  urns;  and 
the  cornucopia,  which  is  much  heavier  than  the  horn  of 
plenty  used  in  the  days  of  Louis  XIII.  and  has  a  wider 
mouth.  The  acanthus,  like  every  other  leaf,  becomes  broad, 
bloated  and  strong,  and  the  garlands,  or  swags  of  fruits, 
flowers  or  leaves,  are  exceedingly  heavy.  On  the  cartouche, 
which  is  both  circular,  or  a  perfect  oval,  is  displayed  the  coat- 
of-arms,  the  fleur-de-lys,  or  the  double  L  —  the  cypher  of 
the  King.  The  mascaron  is  omnipresent;  and  a  combi- 
nation of  scroll  and  shell  is  much  used.  The  anthemion, 
or  honeysuckle  pattern,   is   a   favorite   central   ornament. 

In  furniture,  the  newest  and  most  striking  articles  are  the 
supports  of  the  tables,  the  consoles,  and  the  gueridons  des-  ^ 
tined  to  support  crystal  girandoles;  the  Italian  mosaics  of  n^"^^^^ 
stones  and  the  ebony  furniture  and  French  furniture  con- 
sisting  of  incrustations  of  metal  and  shell  on  a  bed  of  wood, 
or  marquetry  of  colored  woods.  Notable  are  the  supports 
and  architectural  members  of  furniture  ornamented  by 
plump  figures  —  men  and  women,  figures  en  game,  chimserae, 
groups  of  children  or  genies  holding  garlands  and  festoons. 
The  standing  screen  (ecran)  is  quite  popular. 

Some  critics  think  that  the  splendid  silver  furniture  that 
came  into  the  French  Court  with  Anne  of  Austria  was  re- 
sponsible for  developing  a  taste  for  carved  and  gilded 
furniture.  However  that  may  be,  it  is  a  fact  that  the  taste 
for  the  latter  was  not  confined  to  the  wealthy.    The  frames 

45 


Furniture 

of  the  chairs  and  sofas,  the  tables,  the  mirrors  (now  being 
made  at  the  Gobelin  manufactory),  were  elaborately  carved 
and  gilded  and  adorned  comparatively  modest  dwellings. 

The  heavy  and  enormous  chimney-piece  of  the  foregoing 
reign  was  abandoned  for  the  "  little  chimney-piece  " ;  mir- 
rors brightened  the  walls,  the  panels  of  which  were  painted 
and  gilt,  carved  and  gilt,  or  hung  with  tapestries  of  bright 
hues;  the  floors  were  inlaid  with  handsome  woods  and  the 
rich  brocades,  damasks  and  velvets  from  Lyons,  Genoa  and 
Flanders  that  were  used  to  cover  the  seats  and  drape  the 
beds  were  of  bright  colors.  Among  the  new  hues,  a  flame 
color,  called  aurora,  and  a  purplish  red,  called  amaranth, 
were  especially  popular. 

During  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  there  was  a  rage  for  fine 
marbles.  Colored  marbles  were  brought  to  France  from 
Italy  and  Africa;  and  some  old  quarries  in  France  were 
opened;  Verde  antique  (Egyptian  marble),  Violet  Broca- 
telle;  alabaster;  blue  marbles;  yellow  marbles;  red  mar- 
bles; yellow  marbles  with  red  veins;  speckled  marbles; 
and  many  other  varieties  were  employed,  not  only  for 
chimney-pieces  and  other  decorations,  but  for  the  tops  of 
commodes,  bureaus,  etc. 

The  first  part  of  this  period  was  dominated  by  Le  Brun, 
and  the  last  by  Berain. 

Le  Brun  was  a  marvel  of  industry:  "  Between  1663  and 
1690,  he  drew  the  cartoons  after  which  were  woven  nineteen 
hangings,  that  is  to  say,  84,000  ells  of  tapestry;  and  at  the 
same  time,  he  was  executing  or  directing  the  decorations 
at  Versailles,  Saint-Germain  and  Marly,  making  designs  for 
the  royal  plate,  architectural  plans,  such  as  those  for  the 
church  of  Saint  Eustache,  the  Gates  of  Paris,  the  Fountains 
of  Versailles,  making  suggestions  for  the  decoration  of  ships, 
and  collaborating  with  numerous  sculptors  in  the  erection  of 
various  monuments.    All  this  personal  work  was  got  through 

46 


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Styles  and  Schools 

in  addition  to  the  daily  official  duties  of  the  superintendent 
of  the  manufactory,  in  which  lived  not  only  a  whole  popu- 
lation of  artists  and  workmen,  but  also  sixty  poor  children 
apprenticed  to  the  trade  by  the  Treasury.  It  is  greatly  to 
the  credit  of  Le  Brun  that  he  knew  how  to  gather  about 
him  to  aid  him  in  carrying  out  the  vast  commissions  of 
Louis  XIV.  all  the  most  eminent  artists  of  the  day ;  in  fact 
we  may  almost  say  he  was  instrumental  in  their  rise;  and 
when  we  see  the  list  of  their  names,  it  is  impossible  to  help 
admiring  the  liberal-mindedness  of  this  great  man  and  his 
skill  in  associating  with  each  other  men  of  the  most  varied 
gifts,  and  of  leading  them  by  the  force  of  his  own  example 
to  collaborate  in  works  of  a  most  diverse  character.  At  the 
Gobelins  Manufactory,  Le  Brun  induced  the  painters  Van 
der  Meulen,  Monnoyer,  Yvart,  the  two  Boullognes,  Noel 
and  Antoine  Coypel,  with  the  sculptors  Coysevox,  Anguier, 
Tuby  and  Caffieri,  and  the  engravers,  Le  Clerc,  Audran  and 
Rousselet,  to  work  side  by  side  with  the  ebenists  Cucci,  Pi- 
erre, Poitou,  the  jewellers  Alexis  Loir,  Claude  de  Villers 
and  Dutel,  the  lapidaries  Gracetti,  Branchi,  Horatio  and 
Ferdinando,  Mighorini  and  the  tapestry-makers  Jans  and 
his  son.  These  are  but  a  few  amongst  the  many  employees 
of  the  manufactory,  and  to  them  must  be  added  the  artists 
who  lodged  in  the  Louvre  and  were  under  the  control  of  the 
chief  superintendent,  such  as  the  jeweller  Bellin,  the  ebenist 
Charles  Andre  Boulle  and  the  engraver  Varin;  whilst  be- 
yond his  direct  authority,  though  within  the  sphere  of  his 
activity,  were  yet  other  workers,  whom  we  must  not  neglect 
to  notice,  such  as  Marot,  Lepautre  and  Berain."  ^ 

Jean  Lepautre  (born  in  Paris,  died  in  1682),  and  his 
brother,  Antoine  (1621-1691),  had  also  great  influence, 
particularly  Jean.  More  than  two  thousand  plates  came 
from  his  hand.     Lepautre's  style  by  reason  of  his  heavy 

*  An(lr6  Saglio. 
47 


Furniture 

forms  much  overcharged  with  ornamentation  belongs 
rather  to  the  period  of  Louis  XIII.  than  to  that  of  Louis 
XIV. 

"Le  Brun,  pompous  as  he  is,  is  less  luxuriant  in  his 
decorative  compositions  than  Lepautre,  who  proceeds  di- 
rectly from  the  Italians.  A  master  carpenter  himself,  he 
supplied  the  models  for  most  of  the  sculptors  in  wood  of 
his  day:  the  consoles,  tables,  settees  and  doors  inspired  by 
his  designs  may  be  counted  by  hundreds.  All  the  furniture 
that  he  originated  is  heavy  and  powerful  in  form.  His  big 
tables  destined  to  support  heavy  marbles  are  solidly  placed 
on  their  feet,  are  rectangular  and  have  heavy  supports,  — 
a  noble  style  that  probably  appeared  less  heavy  in  the  rich 
architectural  surroundings  in  which  they  were  placed.''  ^ 

Domenico  Cucci,  an  Italian  designer,  is  little  known  ex- 
cept to  the  erudite;  but  the  influence  of  his  mind  in  the 
decoration  of  the  royal  palaces,  and,  consequently  on  the 
taste  of  the  day  was  very  great.  The  account-books  call 
him  "  ehcniste  et  fondenr."  He  was  noted  for  his  ornate 
ebony  cabinets,  ornamented  with  Florentine  mosaic-work 
and  superb  bronzes  that  were  made  in  the  Gobelins  foundry. 
Cucci  also  made  decorative  locks,  door-handles,  window- 
bolts,  door-frames,  garden- furniture,  and  even  an  organ 
case.  It  is  more  than  probable  that  he  was  the  author  of 
some  of  the  bronze  ornaments  for  Boulle's  furniture. 

Filippo  Caffieri,  also  an  Italian,  was  a  fine  wood-carver. 
He  came  from  Rome  about  1660,  and  was  employed  to 
make  furniture  and  picture  frames  for  the  royal  palaces. 
He  seems  to  fill  a  gap  between  the  Italian  style  of  Cucci  and 
Le  Bi-un.  The  folding-doors  of  the  great  staircase  in  Ver- 
sailles, decorated  with  panels  in  which  the  sun,  helmets,  the 
royal  monogram,  chimaerse,  cornucopias,  laurel  leaves  and 
the  lyre  are  carved,  are  his  work. 

*  Molinier. 

48 


Plate  XXI 

Jacobean  Court-Cupboard 
Metropolitan  Museum 


Styles  and  Schools 

Caffieri  made  a  great  many  gueridons,  or  tripod  tables, 
carved  arm-chairs  and  folding-chairs,  most  of  which  were 
intended  to  be  gilded,  silvered  or  lacquered. 

This  period  is  particularly  distinguished  by  the  furniture 
made  by  Andre  Charles  Boulle,  who,  like  many  others  of 
the  period,  came  of  a  family  of  decorative  artists.  His 
father  and  uncle  were  menuisiers  du  roi  and  had  lodgings  in 
the  Louvre;  and  Boulle  himself  had  several  sons  who  con- 
tinued his  work  after  his  long  life  of  ninety  years  ended. 
Boulle's  name  is  chiefly  associated  with  —  indeed  is  used  to 
define — a  special  kind  of  marquetry  composed  of  incrus- 
tations of  metal  and  tortoise-shell  on  wood ;  but  Boulle  was 
not  the  inventor  of  it,  as  is  sometimes  claimed  for  him. 
Marquetry-work  of  this  kind  was  made  by  the  Italians  who 
flocked  to  France  under  the  rule  of  Mazarin,  and  was 
practised  by  Boulle's  four  sons  and  his  many  imitators  who 
kept  it  in  fashion  during  the  second  half  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century.  Work  of  this  character  was  also  ordered  by  the 
King  from  the  Flemish  cabinet-maker  Alexandre  Jean 
Oppenordt. 

Boulle's  furniture  is  excessively  luxurious  and  harmon- 
izes only  in  a  rich  setting.  He  made  consoles,  armoires, 
commodes,  cabinets,  tables,  desks  and  clock-cases.  His 
designs  are  heavy  and  generally  taken  from  the  Louis  XHL 
models;  but  they  also  are  frequently  in  the  newer  taste. 
His  commodes  are  often  bombe  and  sometimes  the  upper 
part  of  his  armoires  swells  into  the  large  curve.  Boulle  was 
very  clever  in  his  use  of  bronze  and  copper  ornaments.  His 
console-tables  and  commodes  are  greatly  admired.  (See 
Plate  XXVL) 

Father  Boulle  did  an  enormous  amount  of  work  and 
received  orders  from  the  King  and  numerous  princes  and 
other  rich  patrons.  It  would,  however,  have  been  impos- 
sible for  him  to  have  executed  all  the  pieces  attributed  to 

49 


Furniture 

his  hand.  The  specimens  in  the  Wallace  Collection,  the 
Louvre,  the  Mazarin  Library,  Paris  and  Windsor  Castle, 
are  authentic.  Sometimes  Boulle  borrowed  the  models  of 
Lepautre,  Le  Brun  and  Berain.  Cucci  is  thought  to  have 
been  responsible  for  many  of  their  ornamental  figures  in 
copper. 

Boulle's  official  title  was  "  eheniste,  ciseleur  et  marqueteur 
ordinaire  du  roi" 

"  In  the  earlier  furniture  made  by  Boulle  the  inlay  was 
produced  at  great  cost,  owing  to  the  waste  of  material  in 
cutting;  and  the  shell  is  left  of  its  natural  color.  In  later 
work  the  manufacture  was  more  economical.  Two  or  three 
thicknesses  of  the  different  materials  were  glued  together 
and  sawn  through  at  one  operation.  An  equal  number  of 
figures  and  of  matrices  or  hollow  pieces  exactly  correspond- 
ing were  thus  produced,  and,  by  countercharging,  two  or 
more  designs  were  obtained  by  the  same  sawing.  These  are 
technically  known  as  boulle  and  counter,  the  brass  forming 
the  groundwork  and  the  pattern  alternately.  In  the  later 
boulle  the  shell  is  laid  on  a  gilt  ground  or  on  vermilion. 
Sometimes  the  two  styles  are  distinguished  as  the  first  part 
'and  the  second  part.  The  general  opinion  on  the  relative 
value  of  each  seems  to  be  that,  while  admitting  the  good 
effect  of  the  two  styles  as  a  whole,  the  first  part  should  be 
held  in  higher  estimation  as  being  the  more  complete.  We 
there  see  with  what  intelligence  the  elaborate  graving  cor- 
rects the  coldness  of  certain  outlines;  the  shells  trace  their 
furrows  of  light,  the  draperies  of  the  canopies  fall  in  cleverly 
disordered  folds,  the  grotesque  heads  grin,  the  branches  of 
foliage  are  lightened  by  the  strongly  marked  edges  of  the 
leaves,  and  everything  lives  and  has  a  language.  In  the 
counterpart  we  can  find  only  the  reflection  of  the  idea  and 
the  faded  shadow  of  the  original.'*  ^ 

*  Havard. 
50 


Plate  XXII 

Marquetry  Writing-Desk,  Chinese  Designs,  Queen  Anne 

Period  (closed) 

Metropolitan  Museum 


Styles  and  Schools 


We  have  seen  that  the  French  were  slower  than  the 
Dutch  to  adopt  Oriental  design.  Huygens,  a  Dutchman,  was 
fairly  successful  in  his  efforts  to  imitate  the  real  lacquer 
and  exploited  his  discoveries  in  Paris.  Before  the  end  of 
the  century  there  were  three  manufactories  for  furniture 
painted  and  varnished  in  the  "  Chinese  style  '*  one  of  which 
made  "  cabinets  and  screens  in  the  Chinese  style." 

Lacquer-work  on  black  background  or  red  background 
and  '*  laques  de  Coromandel "  were  also  used  for  panels, 
armoires  and  for  folding-screens. 

Louis  le  Hongre  and  Martin  Dufaux  made  paintings  and 
varnished  cabinets  for  Versailles;  lacquered  furniture  was 
made  at  the  Gobelins  and  "  oh  jets  Chinois"  or  "  ohjets 
Lachine  "  were  to  be  had  in  many  shops. 

Furniture  now  began  to  be  affected :  the  forms  remained 
European  but  the  decorations  often  show  an  Eastern  origin. 
"  Certain  models  of  decoration  introduced  in  the  midst  of 
rocaille  work  are  indeed  copies  of  Oriental  motives  that 
are  very  well  known.  Chinese  are  the  dragons  carved  on  the 
feet  of  a  beautiful  console  in  gilded  wood  now  in  Fontaine- 
bleau,  which  M.  Champeaux  attributes  to  the  epoch  of 
Louis  XIV.,  but  which  I  would  rather  give  to  the  Regency; 
Chinese  is  the  dragon  which  forms  the  bronze  crosspiece 
that  decorates  the  shelf  of  a  mantel-piece  designed  by  Blon- 
del;  Chinese  is  the  dragon  decorating  a  console  d* applique 
in  gilded  wood  in  the  collection  of  M.  Hoentschel;  and, 
finally,  I  think  no  one  would  question  the  origin  of  the  two 
exquisite  handles  of  bronze  which  Cressent  has  placed  on 
the  commode  in  the  Wallace  Collection.  These  examples, 
which  could  be  multiplied,  will  serve  to  show  that  if  the 
style  rocaille  applied  to  a  period  of  French  art  which  re- 
bounded through  the  whole  of  Europe  is  legitimate,  it 
borrowed  from  Chinese  art  much  of  its  charm  and  fantasy. 

"  The  Louis  XIV.  Style  did  not  disappear  completely  at 

51 


Furniture 

first;  but  it  dwindled  away  and  became  more  delicate,  the 
swelling  curves  more  graceful  though  used  with  less  reason, 
the  introduction  of  decorative  elements  that  artists  of  the 
preceding  period  had  not  found  noble  enough,  and  the  aban- 
donment of  absolute  symmetry  greatly  to  the  advantage  of 
ornamentation  but  engendering  always  a  sort  of  coldness 
which  showed  the  poverty  of  invention.  Gradually  the  as- 
pect of  the  French  style  was  changed:  the  monkeys  and 
grotesque  personages  of  Claude  Gillot,  the  espagnolettes  — 
those  delicate  female  busts  with  coquettish  faces  —  that 
seem  to  have  been  taken  from  Watteau's  compositions,  give 
to  French  Furniture  a  lightness  and  gaiety  until  then  un- 
known. Notwithstanding  all  this,  old  traditions  were  not 
forsaken;  the  beautiful  furniture  of  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury continued  to  give  importance  to  the  bronze  mounts,  ac- 
cording to  the  traditions  of  Boulle ;  and  the  artist  who  was 
most  in  the  fashion  in  the  first  part  of  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury under  the  Regency  —  Charles  Cressent  —  like  all  the 
ebenistes  that  were  his  contemporaries,  even  increased  this 
taste  for  beautiful  bronzes."  ^ 

In  the  second  period  of  Louis  XIV.,  dominated  by  Berain, 
all  the  motives  of  ornament  become  more  delicate  and  re- 
fined till  the  style  Lojds  Quatorze  merges  into  the  style 
Regence. 

It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  curve  gradually  appears  on  the 
legs  of  chairs  and  the  transverse  stretcher  is  supplanted  by 
a  bar. 

Jean  Berain  succeeded  his  father  as  draughtsman  to  the 
King.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  about  1630.  With 
his  brother,  Claude,  the  King's  engraver,  he  issued  a  great 
number  of  designs  for  decorative  panels,  vases,  candelabra 
and  furniture  of  all  forms.  Molinier  finds  the  arabesques 
of  Jean  Berain  very  closely  related  to  those  of  Jacques 

^  Molinier. 
52 


Plate  XXIII 

Marquetry  Writing-Desk,  Chinese  Designs,  Queen  Anne 

Period  (open) 

Metropolitan  Museum 


Styles  and  Schools 


Androuet  Du  Cerceau,  and  considers  Andre  Charles  BouUe, 
notwithstanding  his  first  great  talent,  an  imitator  in  compo- 
sition of  Berain,  just  as  Berain  is,  on  his  part,  a  reflection 
of  Le  Brun. 

"  Berain,"  says  Mariette,  "  frequently  gave  to  furniture 
ornamentation  particularly  appropriate  for  tapestry  or  to  be 
painted  on  panels  and  ceilings ;  in  short,  what  we  call  gro- 
tesques. From  Raphael  who  had  so  happily  imagined  in 
the  style  of  the  ancients  what  appeared  to  him  to  have  a 
good  effect  and  subjected  it  to  his  own  taste,  so  Berain  se- 
lected what  would  conform  to  the  taste  of  the  French  nation 
and  this  idea  succeeded  so  well  that  even  foreigners  adopted 
his  style  of  ornamentation." 

"  Mariette's  expression  is  perfectly  just,"  adds  Molinier : 
"  he  reduced  to  the  French  taste  the  artistic  heritage  of  the 
past  used  by  the  artists  of  the  Louis  XIV.  period ;  and  this 
explains  how  it  was  that  they  created  an  original  style  that 
was  soon  adopted  by  all  Europe." 

Claude  Gillot  (i  673-1 722)  was  another  who  prepared  the 
way  for  the  Regency.  His  singeries  are  much  in  the  style 
of  Berain;  and  having  ignored  all  the  serious,  pompous 
magnificence  of  Louis  XIV.,  they  announce  the  joyous, 
fantastic  spirit  that  his  pupil  Watteau  was  to  carry  even 
farther.  The  change  was  felt  not  only  in  the  forms  of 
furniture,  but  even  in  the  bronze  mounts  and  ornamentation ; 
and  some  of  the  works  that  came  from  Boulle's  workshop 
also  reveal  the  new  style.  The  curve  is  timid,  but  it  is 
present. 

The  Style  RefugiI: 

In  1685,  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  induced 
fifty  thousand  families  of  the  best  French  blood,  intellect  and 
craftsmanship  to  seek  voluntary  exile.    The  Huguenots  took 

53 


Furniture 

refuge  from  the  Dragonnades  in  England,  Holland  and 
Germany ;  and  those  countries  benefited  by  the  short-sighted 
policy  of  a  bigoted  king.  The  goldsmiths,  carvers,  archi- 
tects and  designers  and  painters  among  the  emigrants  were 
so  numerous  that  their  subsequent  work  became  known  as 
the  style  refugie. 

The  most  commanding  figure  in  the  band  was  Daniel 
Marot,  a  member  of  a  family  of  French  artists  and  a  pupil 
of  Lepautre,  whose  style  he  closely  followed.  William  of 
Orange  appointed  Marot  chief  architect  and  minister  of 
works  and  Marot  designed  many  palaces  and  fine  country 
homes,  including  the  interior  fittings,  chimney-pieces,  stair- 
cases, cornices,  china-shelves,  brackets  and  furniture.  He 
also  designed  gardens.  He  accompanied  William  HI.  to 
England  at  the  Glorious  Revolution;  and  when  William 
and  Mary  transformed  Hampton  Court  into  a  Dutch  palace, 
the  work  was  designed  and  supervised  by  Marot  and  Sir 
Christopher  Wren. .  Marot,  indeed,  designed  most  of  the 
furniture,  some  specimens  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen  there. 
Hampton  Court  Palace  was  a  perfect  model  of  the  style 
refugie.  All  the  characteristics  of  Lepautre's  pompous 
and  massive  taste  are  to  be  seen  in  Marot's  work,  together 
with  the  characteristic  ornamentation  of  the  Louis  XIV. 
Style.  His  chairs  and  tables  are  supported  on  heavy  legs 
connected  by  straining-rails,  the  seats  and  backs  of  his  chairs 
and  sofas  are  usually  stuffed  and  upholstered;  his  mirror- 
frames  are  carved  with  scrolls,  mascarons,  shells,  swags  and 
chutes  of  the  bell-flower ;  the  heads  and  arms  of  his  caryat- 
ides and  other  female  figures  are  functional  as  well  as  deco- 
rative ;  his  clock-cases  afford  models  for  the  future  Chippen- 
dale, and,  occasionally,  the  dawning  Regency  Style  is 
apparent. 

Marot  was  extremely  prolific,  too,  in  designing  sumptu- 
ous upholstery  in  rich  textiles  for  his  bedsteads,  chairs, 

54 


}     >  > 


Plate  XXIV 

High  Case  of  Drawers,  Lacquered  (1730-1740) 

Metropolitan  Museum 


Styles  and  Schools 

screens,  curtains  and  lambrequins.    He  made  a  great  use  of 
upholstery. 

Marot's  designs  for  rooms  show  the  limit  to  which  porce- 
lain could  be  used  as  a  decorative  feature.  In  every  possible 
place  he  introduced  a  bracket  —  over  the  doors,  by  the  sides 
of  the  chimney-piece,  and  over  the  windows,  he  always  has 
a  little  ledge  for  the  support  of  a  vase,  a  jar,  or  a  cup.  The 
chimney-piece,  with  its  shelves,  is  particularly  the  show  place 
for  the  valued  Oriental  curios.  Some  of  his  plates  show 
brackets  and  shelves  that  support  as  many  as  three  hundred 
articles,  —  all  of  which  are  so  arranged  as  to  belong  to  the 
scheme  of  decoration.  It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  to  find 
evidences  of  the  "  Chinese  taste  "  among  his  designs. 

The  mirror  on  Plate  XXVII.  is  in  the  Marot  Style.  Here 
we  have  a  square  frame  of  walnut  or  some  dark  wood  with 
gilded  border  and  gilded  ornaments.  The  pediment  is  of 
the  graceful  swan-neck,  and  between  the  scrolls  is  carved  a 
cartouche.  Another  interesting  piece  of  the  period  (see 
Plate  XXVIII. ),  is  a  "  show-table,"  dating  from  the  time  of 
William  and  Mary.  The  glass  case  is  intended  for  the  ex- 
hibition of  curios.  The  stand  is  ornamented  in  the  character- 
istic style  of  the  day.  The  legs  are  decorated  with  the  bell- 
flower  and  are  connected  by  typical  stretchers. 

Marot  worked  through  the  short  reign  of  Queen  Anne 
( 1 702-1 714).    He  died  in  1718,  four  years  after  Her  Ma- 
jesty.    Louis  XIV.  died  in  171 5.     Therefore  the  Queen ^' ^ 
Anne  Style  may  be  described  as  a  transitional  one,  partak- ^ /^«>ax^" 
ing  of  the  characteristics  of  the  late  Louis  XIV.  and  theC   Cu^/^/"^^ 
dawn  of  the  Regency.  / 

Was  it  not  a  Marot  room  that  Addison  had  in  mind  when 
he  described  a  Lady's  Library  in  171 1  ? 

"  At  the  end  of  her  Folios  (which  were  very  finely  bound 
and  gilt)  were  great  jars  of  china,  placed  one  above  another 
in  a  very  noble  piece  of  architecture.    The  Quartos  were  sep- 

55 


Furniture 

arated  from  the  Octavos  by  a  Pile  of  smaller  Vessels  which 
rose  in  a  delightful  Pyramid.  The  Octavos  were  bounded 
by  Ten  Dishes  of  all  shapes,  colours  and  sizes,  which  were  so 
disposed  on  a  wooden  Frame  that  they  looked  like  one  con- 
tinued Pillar,  indented  with  the  finest  Strokes  of  Sculpture 
and  stained  with  the  greatest  variety  of  Dyes.  That  part  of 
the  Library  which  was  designed  for  the  Reception  of  Plays 
and  Pamphlets  and  other  loose  Papers,  was  enclosed  in  a 
kind  of  Square  consisting  of  one  of  the  prettiest  grotesque 
Works  that  I  ever  saw,  and  made  up  of  Scaramouches, 
Lions,  Monkeys,  Mandarins,  Trees,  Shells  and  a  thousand 
other  odd  Figures  in  China  Ware." 

Among  the  other  French  exponents  of  the  style  refugie 
in  England  the  names  of  Samuel  Gribelin  and  J.  B.  Mon- 
noyer  should  be  mentioned. 

During  the  long  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  all  the  Stuart  styles 
pass  before  us  in  England  and  her  colonies.  The  Age  of 
Oak  is  succeeded  by  the  Age  of  Walnut.  Mahogany  begins 
its  career ;  and  new  styles  came  in  from  the  Low  Countries, 
especially  with  William  and  Mary. 

During  the  Seventeenth  Century,  the  tendency  of  Dutch 
furniture  was  to  break  away  from  the  heavy  carved  oak 
chairs  and  tables  and  massive  bedsteads  and  constantly  to 
become  lighter  in  form,  turnery  supplanting  carving  in  the 
posts  of  bedsteads  and  in  the  supports  of  tables,  chairs  and 
cabinets.  A  style  of  furniture  now  came  into  favor,  par- 
ticularly with  the  well-to-do  middle  class,  that  lasted  half 
through  the  Eighteenth  Century.  A  typical  piece  appears 
on  Plate  XXIX.  The  chest-of -drawers  at  first  stood  upon 
spindle  legs  connected  by  stretchers;  and  as  time  wore  on 
upon  the  form  of  leg  shown  in  the  "  high  boy  "  on  Plate 
XXIV.  This  early  form  of  cabriole  leg  with  the  hoof  foot 
was,  in  turn,  succeeded  by  the  cabriole  leg  with  the  claw-and- 
ball  foot  as  shown  in  the  two  chairs  on  Plate  XXX.    These 

56 


s 

s-< 

o 

1 

?> 

1 

=  3 

CO 

<L  *" 

fD 

c 

^^  ^' 

3 

rf   n 

o 

13 

< 

t^ 

n 

> 

S 

H 

&- 

2.0 

X 

C:.  ?s^ 

< 

Styles  and  Schools 

are  the  starting  point  of  a  great  family  of  chairs  —  those 
designated  "  crown-back  "  and  "  Hogarth  "  have  no  difficulty 
in  showing  their  parentage.  A  little  later  in  the  century  the 
jar-shaped  splat  was  variously  carved  and  pierced,  the  top 
rail  variously  waved  and  the  feet  terminated  in  the  bird's 
claw  clasping  a  ball  which  the  Chinese  say  is  taken  from  their 
dragon  holding  a  pearl.  This  brings  us  to  the  so-called 
"  Chippendale  chair,"  which  is  conspicuously  absent  from 
Chippendale's  book. 


Louis  XV.  Style 

The  long  reign  of  Louis  XV.  is  broken  into  two  periods, 
—  the  Regency  and  the  Louis  Qxiinze  proper.  In  the  first, 
grace,  fancy  and 
caprice  are  charm- 
ingly united.  The 
scroll-and-shell, 
the  monkey  and 
motives  taken 
from,  or  suggested, 
by  Chinese  and 
Japanese  screens 
and  jars,  vases  and 
fans  were  beautifully  and  ingeniously  worked  up  by  Gillot, 
Watteau,  Huet  and  others.  The  two  chief  designers  of  the 
Regency  and  Louis  XV.  Style  were  Gilles  Marie  Oppenordt 
(1672- 1 742)  who  became  architect  for  the  Regent  in  171 5, 
and  Charles  Cressent  (i  685-1 768).  Oppenordt  influenced 
Cressent  with  regard  to  general  design  and  form,  though 
Cressent  remained  closely  linked  all  his  life  —  which  was 
unusually  long  —  to  the  period  of  Louis  XIV.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  he  was  a  direct  pupil  of  the  famous  Boulle ;  and 
in  many  respects  he  is  a  follower  of  that  great  master, — 

57 


CANAP£  CONTIDENT,  BY  RADEL,  1765 


Furniture 

particularly  in  his  great  affection  for  the  beautiful  bronzes 
applied  to  the  decoration  of  furniture,  appreciating  the 
splendid  relief  they  give  to  the  form  and  the  great  richness 
of  decoration  they  bestow  upon  the  surface. 

Cressent  was  much  influenced  by  the  styles  of  Claude 
Gillot  and  Watteau,  who  were  also  infatuated  with  le  style 
chinois.  Cressent  always  remained  true  to  himself;  and 
although  progressive  —  he  was  always  seeking  for  lighter 
and  more  varied  forms  —  he  was  one  of  those  artists  who 
retarded  in  interior  decoration  the  new  Classic  style  (des- 
tined to  be  known  as  the  style  Louis  Seise)  that  had 
dawned  and  was  already  influencing  architecture. 

The  artist  in  whom  style  rocaille  reached  its  greatest  de- 
velopment was  Juste  Aurele  Meissonnier  (1695-1750),  a 
native  of  Turin  and  a  pupil  of  Boromini.  When  he  crossed 
the  Alps,  the  style  rocaille^  which  originated  in  Italy,  was 
already  general  in  France;  and  Meissonnier  was  not  the 
only  one  to  push  the  fashion. 

"  He  developed  a  style  which  was  of  Italian  origin  and 
very  ancient,  and  the  genesis  of  which  was  very  compli- 
cated. This  was  already  greatly  advanced  when  Meisson- 
nier arrived  in  France.  He  codified  and  strengthened  these 
elements,  thanks  to  his  supple  and  charming  genius,  and  to 
his  talents  as  an  architect;  and  he  should  not  be  held  re- 
sponsible for  all  the  follies  and  weaknesses  of  his  successors. 
However,  it  is  certainly  evident  that  around  Meissonnier 
and  two  or  three  others  —  true  masters  of  this  genre  — 
that  a  whole  style  of  furniture  and  a  whole  system  of  deco- 
ration that  held  undisputed  sway  in  France  until  about 
1750  should  be  grouped."  ^ 

Meissonnier  was  an  architect,  an  ebeniste  and  a  goldsmith. 
In  his  plates,  which  were  chiefly  engraved  by  Huquier,  he 
gives  plans  and  elevations  for  buildings  and  designs  for 

*  Molinier. 

58 


w 

X 
X 

< 


Styles  and  Schools 

furniture,  lustres,  candelabra,  surtouts  for  the  table,  scissors, 
sword  handles,  knobs  for  canes  and  many  studies  for 
vegetables  and  foliage.  The  canape  for  the  Count  Bielenski 
and  the  salon  furniture  for  the  Princess  Czartoryska  are 
especially  famous. 

"  The  great  Meissonnier  had  studied  in  Italy,  and  con- 
sequently was  not  one  of  us,"  says  a  writer  of  the  day,  "  but 
as  he  had  wisely  preferred  the  taste  of  the  Boromini  to  the 
w^earisome  antique  taste,  he  had  thereby  come  closer  to  us; 
for  Boromini  rendered  the  same  service  to  Italy  that  we  have 
to  France  by  introducing  there  an  architecture  gay  and  in- 
dependent of  all  those  rules  that  were  anciently  called  good 
taste.  Meissonnier  began  by  destroying  all  the  straight 
lines  that  were  used  of  old ;  he  curved  the  cornices  and  made 
them  bulge  in  every  way;  he  curved  them  above  and 
below,  before  and  behind,  gave  curves  to  everything,  even 
to  the  mouldings  that  seemed  least  susceptible  of  them;  he 
invented  contrasts,  —  that  is  to  say,  he  banished  symmetry, 
and  made  no  two  sides  of  the  panels  alike.  Indeed  these 
two  sides  seem  to  be  trying  to  see  which  can  deviate  most 
and  most  strangely  from  the  straight  line."  ^ 

After  the  death  of  Meissonnier,  Antoine  Sebastian  Slodtz 
(about  1 694-1 726),  son  of  an  Antwerp  sculptor,  be- 
came chief  designer  to  the  King.  Slodtz  had  worked  in  Ver- 
sailles and  married  the  daughter  of  Domenico  Cuffi.  It  was 
natural,  therefore,  that  the  many  sons  of  this  marriage 
should  inherit  artistic  talent.  Some  became  painters,  some 
sculptors  and  some  were  successively  designers  to  the  King. 
They  are  supposed  to  have  worked  together,  had  great  in- 
fluence on  the  styles  of  the  day ;  and  executed  many  pieces 
for  royal  palaces.    They  were  followers  of  Meissonnier. 

A  large  cabinet  for  medals  and  the  encoignures  now  in  the 
Bibliotheque  Nationale,  shows  these  brothers  at  their  best. 

Molinier. 

59 


Furniture 

These  pieces  were  made  by  the  cabinet-makers  Gaudreaux, 
or  Gaudereaux,  and  Joubert,  respectively.  The  encoigmtres 
are  particularly  fine. 

We  now  come  to  Jacques  Caffieri,  the  fifth  son  of  the 
Caffieri  in  the  employ  of  Louis  XIV.,  "  sctdpteur,  fondeur 
et  ciseleur  du  roi,"  whose  work  was  distinguished  by  grace 
and  aristocratic  elegance.  Caffieri  seems  to  have  directed 
the  making  of  a  great  deal  of  cabinet-work,  and  he  made  a 
great  deal  of  bronze  work  for  CEben. 

"  Some  critics,  struck  with  the  comparative  soberness  of 
the  earlier  works  of  Jacques  Caffieri,  in  which  he  seems  to 
be  an  admirer  of  Robert  de  Cotte,  and  with  the  unbridled 
imagination  of  his  later  productions,  in  which  he  greatly 
exceeds  the  audacity  even  of  Meissonnier, 
have  conceived  the  idea  that  the  latter  may 
be  attributed  to  Philippe  and  may  have 
been  produced  during  the  seven  years  that 
he  survived  his  father.  It  is  perhaps  un- 
necessary to  go  so  far  for  an  explanation 
that  is  founded  on  no  document.  The 
Italian  birth  of  the  ebeniste  of  Louis 
XIV.  is  quite  enough  to  account  for  the 
eagerness  with  which  Jacques  Caffieri 
took  up  the  style  rocaille,  which  gave  full  scope  to  his  ex- 
traordinary dexterity.  In  the  end,  he  used  completely  to 
cover  over  the  furniture  he  produced  with  brass  decorations ; 
his  beautiful  commode  in  the  Wallace  Collection  is  of  an 
almost  austere  simplicity  compared  with  the  bureau  in  black 
lacquer  of  the  Ministere  de  la  Justice,  the  drawers  of  which 
are  disguised  in  a  complicated  casing  of  copper,  whilst  the 
supports  down  to  the  very  feet  are  nothing  but  drooping 
masses  of  flowers;  or  still  more  compared  with  the  famous 
table  with  a  set  of  pigeon-holes  owned  by  the  Metternich 
family  of  Vienna  surmounted  by  a  perfect  pyramid  of  rocks 

60 


LOUIS  XV.   BEDSTEAD 


Plate  XXVII 

Mahogany  and  Gilt  Mirror.     Marot  Style 

Metropolitan  Museum 


Styles  and  Schools 


and  figures  and  with  complicated  supports  without  any 
wood  in  them  at  all.  It  would  be  impossible  to  go  further 
in  this  direction ;  the  art  of  Caffieri  was  the  culminating 
effect,  the  final  flare-up  of  the  lavish  style  of  decoration 
encouraged  by  the  patronage  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Madame 
de  Pompadour,  which  charms  in  spite  of  its  complicated 
extravagance."  ^ 

M.  de  Champeaux  has  discovered  that  there  were  two 
ebenistes  of  the  name  of  (Eben  —  Jean  Frangois  and  Simon 
—  that  both  were  probably  ebenistes  du  roi;  that  the 
QEbens  were  from  Flanders  or  Germany;  and,  like  Riese- 
ner,  belonged  to  a  little  colony  of  German  artisans  who  were 
attracted  by  the  Austrian  Queen  and  who  settled  in  the 
Faubourg  Saint-Antoine. 

CEben  was  a  pupil  of  Boulle  and  devoted  himself  chiefly  to 
marquetry-work.  His  assistants,  Caflieri  and  Duplessis, 
executed  the  metal  ornaments.  CEben's  work  was  greatly 
liked  by  Madame  de  Pompadour.  He  died  about  1756,  and 
his  widow  married  his  foreman  Jean  Henri  Riesener.  CEben 
was  responsible  for  the  magnificent  bureau  du  roi,  which 
was  finished  by  Riesener  (see  page  145). 

Among  the  other  designers  and  cabinet-makers,  we  may 
cite  Nicholas  Pineau,  whose  ornate  pieces  were  often  made 
by  J.  Dubois,  Nicholas  Petit,  L.  Boudin,  Pierre  Pionnier, 
Etienne  Levasseur,  the  Migeons  (father  and  son)  and  Sul- 
pice,  Loriot  and  Arnoult,  famous  for  the  mechanical  de- 
vices they  added  to  their  tables,  chairs,  etc. 

Nor  must  we  forget  the  splendid  lacquer- work  of  the 
Martin  family.  The  Martins  perfected  a  varnish  so  beauti- 
ful and  so  much  like  Oriental  work  that  even  Voltaire 
remarked : 

"Et  ces  cabinets  ou  Martin 
A  sur passe  Vart  de  la  Chine.^* 
^  Andr6  Saglio. 
61 


Furniture 

One  of  the  Martins  received  more  than  10,000  livres  for 
his  work  in  the  Cabinet  de  la  Dauphine;  and  some  of  the 
magnificent  bouUe-work  which  Louis  XIV.  had  had  exe- 
cuted for  his  son  was  destroyed  to  make  room  for  decora- 
tions in  the  Martin  style  on  a  green  background. 

In  1756  Martin  worked  in  Versailles  and  was  ordered  by 
the  King  to  paint  Madame  Victoire's  room.  The  style  was 
so  much  to  the  taste  of  Madame  de  Pompadour  that  she 
employed  him  at  the  Chateau  de  Bellevue  under  a  salary 
and  the  long  list  of  lacquered  works  that  he  produced  there 
included  commodes,  bureaux,  encoignures  and  tables. 

Soon  furniture  painted  in  the  "  Vernis  Martin  "  style  in 
which  the  whole  piece  was  decorated  instead  of  being  merely 
ornamented  with  panels,  became  the  rage. 

The  Martin  family  was  large.  Robert  (i  706-1 765)  had 
four  sons,  two  of  whom,  Jean  Alexandre  and  Antoine  Nich- 
olas, followed  their  father's  profession.  Jean  Alexandre 
Martin  was  one  of  the  artists  who  decorated  the  Palace  of 
Sans  Souci,  thus  carrying  his  style  into  Prussia. 

Carriages,  sedan-chairs  and  sleighs  were  also  decorated 
by  the  Martins;  and,  like  every  other  piece  by  the  Martins, 
bring  enormous  prices  to-day. 

In  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  there  was  a  great  fancy  for 
silver  ornamentation,  as  well  as  gilded  bronze;  beautiful 
silver  girandoles  and  lustres  were  made;  rock-crystal  was 
also  used;  and  the  passion  for  the  porcelain  of  Saxony, 
Sevres  and  Vincennes,  as  well  as  Oriental  ware,  did  not 
abate  in  the  least.  Plaques  were  now  often  introduced  into 
furniture.  The  tops  of  tables,  commodes  and  bureaux  were 
fitted  with  slabs  of  rare  and  beautifully  colored  marbles,  as 
in  the  preceding  reign ;  the  chairs  and  sofas  were  covered  in 
exquisite  Gobelins,  Beauvais  and  Aubusson  tapestry;  hand- 
some mirrors  adorned  the  panelled  walls  above  the  console- 
tables;   the  window-curtains  were  cut  and  hung  in  spirited 

62 


■mmmmmmmmi,- 


Plate  XXVIII 

Show-Table.     William  and  Mary 
Metropolitan  Museum 


Styles  and  Schools 

and  charming  folds,  and  gathered  up  into  choux  or  knots; 
and  colors  were  lighter  and  gayer  than  in  the  days  of  Louis 
XIV.  Rich  and  heavy  reds,  greens  and  blues  gave  place  to 
pale  yellow,  rose,  delicate  green  and  light  blue. 

On  Plate  XXXI.  typical  examples  of  this  period  are 
shown.  The  beautiful  encoignure  of  black  and  gold  lacquer, 
or  rather  gold  figures  on  a  black  background,  is  signed  J. 
Dubois.  The  chutes,  leaf -shoes  and  frames  of  the  panels  of 
floral  and  rocaille  designs  are  bronze.  A  Louis  XVI.  clock 
stands  on  the  marble  top. 

The  lady's  table  on  the  same  plate  is  a  dainty  work  of 
colored  marquetry  and  ivory,  forming  pretty  pictures  that 
decorate  all  four  sides.  One  of  the  three  drawers  is  fitted 
up  as  a  desk.  A  shelf  between  the  legs  is  another  conven- 
ience. The  chutes  and  feet  are  of  bronze  and  the  open-work 
rails  are  copper. 

The  chair  shown  on  Plate  XXXII.  reveals  the  Louis  XV. 
Style  at  its  height.  The  curves  are  graceful  and  the  frame 
is  not  excessively  decorated.  This  piece,  which  is  in  the 
Metropolitan  Museum,  is  covered  with  tapestry. 

The  Chippendale  Style 

Recent  research  has  shown  that  there  were  three  Thomas 
Chippendales.  The  first  was  a  carver  and  picture-frame 
maker  of  Worcester  at  the  end  of  the  Seventeenth  Century. 
His  son,  Thomas,  the  great  Chippendale,  was  born  in 
Worcester;  and  the  father  and  the  son  settled  in  London 
about  1727.  The  latter  became  an  eminent  cabinet-maker 
and  carver  and  in  1 753  was  established  in  St.  Martin's  Lane. 
In  the  next  year  the  Gentleman  and  Cabinet-maker's  Director 
was  published.  A  second  edition  was  published  in  1759; 
and  a  third,,  in  1761,  containing  his  famous  designs  for 
household  furniture.     In  1760,  Chippendale  was  elected  a 

63 


Furniture 


CHATK-BACK; 
DALE, 


member  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  whose  members  included  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds,  Edward  Gibbon,  David  Garrick,  Horace 
Walpole  and  John  Wilkes.  Thomas  Chippendale  11.  died 
in  1799  and  left  four  children,  one  of  whom  was  a  third 
Thomas,  who  also  became  a  cabinet-maker  and  went  into 
partnership  with  Thomas  Haig.  The  firm  of  Chippendale 
and  Haig  lasted  from  1779  until  1785. 

In  1 814,  Thomas  Chippendale  HI. 
opened  a  shop  in  the  Haymarket  and  prac- 
tically continued  his  father's  business. 
Like  his  father,  he  was  also  a  member  of 
the  Society  of  Arts.  Chippendale  III.  did 
a  great  deal  of  work  at  Raynham  Hall, 
Norfolk,  in  1818-1819.  He  was  also  a 
..  painter  and  exhibited  some  pictures  at  the 
Royal  Academy. 
Returning  to  the  second  Chippendale,  an  authority  says: 
"  His  book  of  designs  attracted  much  attention,  the  public 
appreciated  his  work  and  seems  to  have  bought  largely,  but 
the  true  greatness  of  his  productions  was  not  recognized 
until  nearly  a  century  after  his  death.  It  is  a  curious  fact 
that  the  greater  portion  of  the  furniture  bearing  the  impress 
of  his  genius,  or  known  to  have  been  designed  and  made  in 
his  shops,  is  not  illustrated  in  any  of  the  three  editions  of  the 
Director.  The  elegant  ball-and-claw  foot  which  is  seen  so 
constantly  in  connection  with  his  chairs  and  tables  is  con- 
spicuous by  its  absence,  nor  does  this  design  appear  in  any 
of  the  illustrated  works  published  by  his  contemporaries. 
Furniture  is  now  made  for  the  most  part  in  large  factories, 
machinery  taking  the  place  of  the  skilled  craftsman.  De- 
signers leave  to  others  the  execution  of  their  ideas. 

"  There  is  much  difference  of  opinion  whether  Chippendale 
was  the  first  to  introduce  into  England  the  style  which  bears 
his  name,  or  was  simply  one  of  the  craftsmen  who  best 

64 


Plate  XXIX 

Chest  of  Drawers  on  Stand.     Anglo-Dutch 

Metropolitan  Museum 


r 


Styles  and  Schools 

succeeded  in  crystallizing  and  putting  into  concrete  form 
the  floating  ideas  fashionable  at  the  time.  Furniture  of  a 
specific  school,  known  as  Chippendale  was  executed  all  over 
the  kingdom  during  a  great  part  of  the  Eighteenth  Century. 
A  similar  type  of  decoration  was  adopted  by  silversmiths, 
potters  and  engravers,  and  the  English  designs  were  widely 
imitated  by  contemporary  craftsmen,  both  in  our  American 
and  other  colonies.  In  Ireland,  also,  much  beautiful  work 
was  produced  during  the  Chippendale  period,  and  though 
no  doubt  based  on  the  designs  of  the  London  makers,  the 
Irish  style  of  carving  showed  marked  individuality.  On  the 
whole,  it  was  heavier  in  design  than  the  English  and  had  a 
flatter  surface."  ^ 

The  plates  in  Chippendale's  book  are  in  three  styles :  the 
Louis  XV.,  the  Gothic,  and  the  Chinese.  He  was  a  marvel- 
lous carver  and  revelled  in  all  the  ornaments  of  fancy.  We 
find  the  Chinese  mandarin,  pagoda,  umbrella  canopy  with 
bells,  monkey's  head,  long-tailed,  long-billed  bird,  shell,  fret, 
endive  leaves,  rams'  heads  holding  swags  of  leaves,  squirrel, 
mascaron,  spiky  thorn,  lions'  heads,  the  serpent  among 
flowers,  subjects  from  ^sop  and  Grecian  mythology,  dolphin, 
wyvern,  cocatrice,  attributes  of  music,  war,  hunting,  the 
bull's  head,  the  caduceus  and  the  C,  which  some  people  per- 
sistently say  is  his  initial,  when  it  is  only  the  scroll  of  the 
Louis  XV.  period,  a  return  of  the  old  ear-motive  (see 
page  2i^)'  The  carver's  greatest  skill  was  lavished  on  mirror 
and  picture  frames,  girandoles,  pier-tables  and  brackets; 
his  china-shelves  and  cabinets  received  great  attention  and 
his  open-work  chairs  are  as  highly  valued  to-day  as  any 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  The  designs  in  his  book  were 
chiefly  intended  to  be  carved  and  gilded  or  japanned  and 
lacquered.  He  seldom  mentions  mahogany.  Chippendale 
made  great  use  of  drapery,  and  designed  elaborate  festoons 

*  Constance  Simon. 

65 


Furniture 

and  intricate  mechanical  devices  for  manipulating  his  cur- 
tains. Some  of  his  furniture,  which  is  labelled  "French 
chair,"  or  "  sofa,"  he  shamelessly  took  from  Meissonnier, 
from  whose  books  of  design  he  appropriated  bell-flowers, 
icicles,  dripping  water,  cascades,  leaves,  feathers,  shell-work 
and  spiky  thorns.  As  Matthias  Darly,  who  engraved  most 
of  Chippendale's  plates,  lived  much  in  Paris,  the  admirers  of 
Chippendale  may  pin  the  thefts  upon  him,  if  they  like. 

Matthias  Darly  (or  Darley)  was  a  great  friend  of  Chip- 
pendale's, and  some  critics  think  he  had  a  very  large  share  in 
Chippendale's  designs.  Darly  formed  a  partnership  with 
Edwards,  and,  with  the  latter,  issued  A  New  Book  of 
Chinese  Designs  in  1 754.  At  a  later  period  Darly  followed 
the  classical  taste  as  exemplified  by  the  Adams  and  Pergolesi. 
Others  of  the  Chippendale  School  are  Ince  and  May  hew, 
who,  with  their  sons,  continued  in  business  until  181 2, 
Thomas  Johnson,  Robert  Mainwaring  (famous  for  his  ele- 
gant "Chinese  Chairs"),  Matthias  Lock  and  H.  Copland. 

Two  characteristic  Chippendale  pieces  appear  on  Plates 
XXXIII.  and  XXXIV.  The  first  is  an  arm-chair  of  ex- 
traordinary size  and  the  second  a  sofa  or  triple-back  settee. 

In  the  first,  the  jar-shaped  splat  is  pierced  and  carved 
with  scrolls  and  foliage.  The  side  supports  are  cut  into  flut- 
ing and  piping,  and  the  wavy  top  rail  has  reversed  scrolls 
and  foliage.  The  arms  curve  out  boldly,  ending  in  lions' 
heads  and  manes  and  foliage  on  the  supports.  The  seat, 
which  measures  two  feet  nine  inches  in  front,  is  slightly  ser- 
pentine in  front  and  the  rail  is  carved  with  foliage  and  shell 
work  which  is  carried  round  the  sides.  The  cabriole  leg  ends 
in  lions'  feet  and  a  mascaron  issues  from  the  foliage  on  the 
knee.  The  seat  is  covered  with  old  English  embroidery  of 
large  flowers  and  foliage  in  colored  wools  on  linen. 

The  open-back  mahogany  sofa,  or  settee,  of  unusual  de- 
sign, has  a  three-chair  back.    The  central  panel,  where  a  bird 

66 


o  9 

fio 

;;■  c 

3      O 

c    p 
3  :;• 


> 
m 

X 
X 


Styles  and  Schools 


sits  among  the  entwined  ribbons  on  the  oak-tfranch,  is  carved 
differefl;ly  from  the  others.  Ribbons,  leaves  and  oak-apples 
and  the  reversed  C-scrolls  form  the  rest  of  the  decoration. 
The  old  crown-back  is  also  suggested  in  the  central  back. 
The  other  two  backs  exhibit  an  intricate  combination  of  rib- 
bons, scrolls  and  foliage,  and  the  top  is  wavy.  The  arms 
curve  slightly  outward  and  end  in  dragons' 
heads.  The  front  rail  of  the  seat  is  curved 
in  festoons  with  shells  at  intervals  among  the 
foliage  and  a  big  mascaron  in  the  centre. 
Richly  carved  cabriole  legs  with  acanthus 
leaves  and  berries  for  ornamentation  end  in 

1-  >      «•  r~^  •  ^  •  r       t  1  CHAIR-BACK  BY 

lions  feet.  Opposite  the  spring  of  the  knee  chippendale, 
is  a  reversed  scroll.  The  two  back  legs  end  ^'^^^ 
in  the  simple  ball-and-claw  foot.  The  covering  is  old  Eng- 
lish needlework  representing  large  flowers  in  colored  silks 
on  a  purple  background.  Tift  whole  piece  is  remarkably 
ornate  and  remarkably  beautiful.  It  was  once  in  the  Dean 
Collection. 

Louis  XVI.  Style 

Towards  the  end  of  the  Louis  XV.  period,  the  general 
outlines  of  furniture  become  less  carved  and  the  straight 
line  gradually  asserts  itself.  Indeed,  as  early  as  1760  some 
very  straight,  severe  and  heavy  models  appear,  particularly 
those  of  Delafosse,  and  ultra-classic  tendencies  begin  to 
predominate. 

The  general  effect  of  Louis  XVI.  furniture  lies  in  the 
almost  exclusive  use  of  the  straight  line.  The  curves  that 
were  so  characteristic  of  the  Louis  XV.  period  gradually 
disappear,  the  rounded  corners  give  place  to  the  sharp 
angles  and  the  curved,  swelling  leg  becomes  straight.  The 
function  of  each  part  is  plainly  indicated;    for  instance,  a 

67 


Furniture 

foot  IS  no  longer  concealed  beneath  a  leafy  scroll:  it  is  a 
foot  plainly  seen ;  a  drawer,  or  a  door,  is  plainly  incficated ; 
and  the  handles  that  in  the  last  period  issued  from  dragons' 
tails,  wings  of  birds,  or  spiky  leaves,  are  banished  for  knobs, 
rings  and  rosettes.  The  construction  of  Louis  XV.  furniture 
was  conceived  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  cabinet-maker 
and  worker  in  wood;  on  the  other  hand,  the  Louis  XVL 
furniture  follows  the  design  of  classic  architecture  —  every 
object  is  separated  into  three  distinct  parts ;  and  these  differ- 
ent parts  are  outlined  plainly  with  mouldings,  headings  and 
other  ornamental  motives  that  are  never  found  in  the  age 
of  Louis  XV. 

Ornaments  of  the  style  of  Louis  XV.  died  hard,  how- 
ever; and  we  constantly  find  them  upon  pieces  of  furni- 
ture that  show  a  very  high  development  of  the  style  Louis 
Seise. 

Many  different  causes  contributed  towards  a  change  of 
style.  About  1748,  the  excavations  at  Pompeii  and  Her- 
culaneum  (discovered  in  1719)  were  begun.  Caylus  pub- 
lished his  Recueil  d'antiquites  1 752-1 762;  and  Winckel- 
mann  his  works  on  Greek  art  in  1754  and  1764.  Another 
contributory  influence  was  the  publication  of  Piranesi's 
drawings  of  Etruscan,  Egyptian,  Greek  and  Roman 
architecture. 

"  Piranesi's  work  inspired  many  a  founder,  for  example 
Thomire.  As  for  the  Egyptian  Style,  it  is  an  error  to  believe 
that  it  originated  in  France  after  the  expedition  to  Egypt. 
After  this  event,  it  is  only  just  to  note  that  it  returned  in 
favor;  but  towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  and 
during  that  of  Louis  XVI.  this  style  flourished  under  the 
hands  of  the  French  artists.  Gouthiere  chiseled  figures  in 
the  Egyptian  style  for  the  Due  d'Aumont.  The  collections 
of  antiquity  engraved  and  published  in  France  were  quite 
sufficient  to  account  for  the  flowering  of  a  style,  the  dry  and 

68 


o 

B. 

< 


t»3 
o 


H 


> 
H 
W 

X 
X 
X 


Styles  and  Schools 

straight  lines  of  which  frame  so  well  the  strange  idea  that  it 
was  all  developed  from  Greek  and  Roman  art."  ^ 

The  taste  for  the  antique  quickly  took  root,  and  was 
greatly  favored  by  Madame  de  Pompadour. 

The  decorations  and  furnishings  of  Madame  Du  Barry's 
Pavilion  de  Loiiveciennes,  moreover,  were  entirely  in  the 
new  taste,  —  so  much  so,  in  fact,  that  modern  criticism  is 
sometimes  disposed  to  call  what  has  so  long  been  called  the 
style  Marie  Antoinette,  the  style  Du  Barry. 

Gouthiere,  doreur  et  ciseleur  du  roi,  worked  here,  and 
many  of  the  charming  pieces  in  the  Jones  Collection  in  the 
South  Kensington  Museum,  give  an  idea  of  what  was  pro- 
duced at  Louveciennes.  Jean  Frangois  Leleu  was  another 
who  worked  for  Madame  Du  Barry. 

During  this  period  the  designers  were  fortunate  in  having 
such  skilful  artisans  as  Dugourc,  Cauvat,  Prieur,  Forty,  Car- 
lin  and  Riesener  to  realize  their  compositions. 

Many  of  the  designers  who  became  identified  with  the 
Louis  XVI.  Style  had  published  works  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
XV.  One  of  these  is  Neufforge,  a  native  of  Liege.  Among 
his  productions  are  tables,  commodes,  sofas,  cabinets,  buffets, 
armoires,  clocks,  and  consoles.  Some  of  the  designs  are 
in  the  style  Louis  Quinze;  but  his  works  afford  a  com- 
plete view  of  the  exterior  and  interior  decoration  of  the 
style  Louis  Seize. 

Another  famous  designer  who  overlaps  the  periods  is 
Delafosse,  who  designed  every  kind  of  furniture  and  orna- 
ment, trophies  and  pastoral  attributes,  as  well  as  ornamental 
devices  in  which  musical  instruments  figure  and  attributes 
of  painting,  hunting,  fishing,  etc.,  etc.  His  sofas,  chairs, 
beds,  couches  and  settees  are  all  in  the  newest  taste  of  the 
day,  so  much  so  in  fact  that  he  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  lead- 
ing exponents  of  the  Louis  XVI.  Style.    The  "  genre  de  la 

Molinier. 

69 


Furniture 

Fosse  "  is  often  used  to  designate  both  his  productions  and 
those  of  his  followers. 

Boucher,  the  son  of  the  famous  painter,  was  also  a  deco- 
rator whose  designs  for  rooms  and  furniture  give  a  correct 
idea  of  the  Louis  XVL  Style. 

The  artist  in  whose  work  we  can  best  follow  the  evolution 
of  the  general  lines  of  the  furniture  of  this  part  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century  is  Jean  Henri  Riesener  (173  5- 1806). 
One  great  interest  in  Riesener's  furniture  is  that  it  exhibits 
the  transition  between  the  two  styles  of  Louis  XV.  and 
Louis  XVL 

Riesener's  great  forte  was  marquetry-work.  Many 
models  were  furnished  him  by  Jacques  Gondouin  (1737- 
181 8),  the  architect  and  pupil  of  Blondel,  who  was  a  great 
lover  of  the  Greco-Roman  style.  Gondouin  was  a  designer 
for  the  furniture  for  royal  residences.  Riesener  worked  in 
both  styles  —  the  old  and  the  new ;  and  as  Riesener  did  not 
die  until  1806,  he  made  a  great  deal  of  furniture.  His  most 
famous  work  was  the  Bureau  de  Louis  XV.  which  he  signed, 
but  which  was  really  begun  by  CEben.  It  is  a  cylinder  desk 
in  the  shape  that  was  new  in  those  days,  and  it  is  decorated 
with  magnificent  marquetry  and  flowers  and  trophies  of 
poetry  and  war.  The  splendid  bronzes  that  adorn  it,  long 
attributed  to  Philippe  Caffieri,  were  designed  by  Duplessis 
and  Winant  and  were  made  by  Hervieux.  They  include  two 
bronze  figures,  Apollo  and  Calliope,  who  hold  girandoles 
with  two  branches,  a  clock  with  figures  of  children,  bas- 
reliefs  and  other  ornaments.  Riesener  signed  the  work  and 
dated  it  1769  ''a  I'Arsenal  a  Paris."  This  is  now  in  the 
Louvre. 

Charles  Saunier  (made  a  master  in  1752),  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Riesener,  and  worked  until  the  Revolution. 
He  followed  the  styles  of  Riesener  and  Leleu. 

The  most  fashionable  ebeniste  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI. 

70 


Plate  XXXII 

Louis  XV.  Arm-Chair 
Metropolitan  Museum 


SOFA  BY  DE  LALONDE 


Styles  and  Schools 

was  Martin  Carlin,  many  of  whose  works  are  now  in  the 
Louvre.  On  account  of  his  charming  and  dainty  work  and 
the  delicacy  of  his  profiles,  Carlin  is  the  embodiment  of  the 
"  style  de  la  Reine."  Carlin  accomplished  for  Marie  Antoi- 
nette what  Gouthiere  had  accomplished  for  Madame  Du 
Barry.  Jean  Pafrat  acquired  fame  by  working  with  Carlin. 
Cabinet-makers  made  a  great  many  pieces  from  the  designs 
of  Ranson,  whose  sofas,  beds, 
ottomans,  and  seats  of  all  kinds 
were  in  the  newest  style.  Ranson 
was  famous  for  his  draped  beds. 
He  liked  flowers  and  pastoral 
trophies  and  looped  garlands  and 
ribbons  gracefully  around  a  group 
of  shepherds'  hats,  crooks,  spades,  trowels,  and  bird-cages. 
Garlands  of  roses  among  which  birds  bill  and  coo,  or  a 
quiver  of  arrows  is  hidden,  often  decorate  the  round  or  oval 
forms  of  his  chairs. 

De  Lalonde's  designs  were  especially  popular.  He  con- 
sidered nothing  too  trivial  for  his  pencil,  for  among  the 
plates  of  his  thirteen  books  on  furniture  there  are  many  locks 
and  knobs  for  doors  and  rosettes  for  ceilings  side  by  side 
with  commodes,  sofas,  bookcases,  chairs,  beds,  etc.,  etc. 
Many  of  De  Lalonde's  models  were  made  for  Trianon  and 
Fontainebleau.  De  Lalonde  shows  all  the  popular  motives  of 
the  day.  He  is  particularly  fond  of  the  grooved  leg,  the  leg 
bound  with  ribbons,  the  quiver,  the  lyre,  the  garland,  the 
urn,  the  burning-torch  and  the  ribbon.  During  the  Direc- 
toire  period,  he  slavishly  followed  the  fashion  and  then 
merges  into  the  Empire  Style. 

Nowhere  is  the  style  Louis  Seize  better  shown  than  in  the 
designs  by  Lequeu,  whose  beds  look  strange  to  our  eyes  with 
their  columns  formed  of  bunches  of  javelins  and  head- 
boards decorated  with  quivers  full  of  arrows  at  each  corner. 

71 


Furniture 

Lequeu  is  also  addicted  to  thin  vases  with  busts  of  Homer, 
Cicero  or  'Socrates,  festooned  with  garlands,  and  he  likes 
the  burning-torch.  His  sofas,  smothered  in  drapery  with 
festoons  around  their  crown-shaped  domes  or  canopies,  are 
strikingly  like  Sheraton's. 

Plate  XXXV.  shows  two  arm-chairs  of  the  Louis  XVI. 
Style  at  its  height,  before  any  influence  of  the  Empire  is  felt. 
In  Etienne  Levasseur,  the  coming  Empire  Style  asserts 
itself  strongly.  He-  created  furniture  in  mahogany,  sur- 
mounted by  a  gallery  of  open-work  bronze,  and  bureaux  and 
commodes  in  the  form  of  a  lower  part  of  an  armoire.  His 
pieces  greatly  resemble  those  that  were  made  in  England  at 
the  end  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.  Another  ebeniste  in 
whom  the  new  Empire  Style  is  strong,  and  who  was  the  fav- 
orite at  Court  is  Guillaume  Benneman,  who,  with  the  aid  of 
Thomire  (a  pupil  of  Gouthiere),  made  probably  the  most 
important  furniture  ordered  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI. 

The  commode  on  Plate  XXXVI.  is  an  excellent  example'' 
of  late  Louis  XVI.  It  is  of  mahogany  with  three  rows 
of  drawers,  the  first  row  directly  under  the  white  marble 
slab  adorned  with  a  delicate  frieze  of  bronze.  The  bronze 
handles  of  the  drawers  are  also  finely  chiselled,  as  are  also 
the  locks  and  mouldings.  The  sides  are  grooved.  The  work 
is  signed  G.  Benneman. 

Upon  the  top  stand  two  candelabra  of  bronze  and  white 
marble,  the  three  lights  being  held  by  Cupids.  These  are  of 
the  same  period.  The  statuette  of  Ganymede  on  the  eagle 
]^ith  Jupiter 's'thunderbolts  in  his  hand  is  of  an  earlier  date. 

Benneman  was  particularly  fond  of  mahogany  and  his 
heavy  pieces  —  some  of  his  enormous  commodes,  etc.,  would 
be  positively  hideous  were  it  not  for  the  beautiful  brass- work 
adorning  them.  Benneman's  style  is  well  exhibited  in  the 
two  buffets  in  the  Louvre,  bearing  the  monogram  of  Marie 
Antoinette,  and  in  the  great  commode  in  the  same  gallery, 

72 


Plate  XXXIII 
Chippendale  Arm-Chair 


Styles  and  Schools 


supported  by  lions'  feet  and  ornamented  in  the  centre  with 
two  cooing  doves  in  a  garland  of  flowers,  above  a  Cupid's 
bow.  Like  Benneman,  Joseph  Stockel  was  a  German,  who 
also  liked  heavy  forms.  These  two  men  form  the  next  link 
in  the  development  of  style  from  De  Lalonde. 

Molinier  considers  the  continued  heaviness  the  fault  of 
the  Germans.  He  says :  "  Instead  of  aiding  in  its  normal 
development  and  introducing  into  it  new  elements  of  vitality, 
the  German  ebenistes,  of  which  Paris  was  full,  stifled  the 
growth  of  French  furniture  and  the  native  artists  had  not 
the  time  fully  to  assimilate  what  the  foreigners  brought  with 
them.  The  result  was  a  very  strange  style,  heavy  in  form, 
and  in  which  very  little  of  the  true  French  taste  of  charm 
and  elegance  is  to  be  found.  Among  the  host  of  German 
artists  we  may  note  Schlichtig,  Charles  Richter,  Gaspard 
Schneider,  Bergeman,  Feuerstein,  Frost,  Schmitz,  J.  F. 
Schwerdferger,  and,  greatest  of  all,  Adam  Weisweiller  and 
David  Roentgen." 

Weisweiller  made  many  pieces  of  extreme  lightness  and 
grace  often  adorned  with  Sevres  plaques.  Roentgen  was 
famous  for  his  splendid  marquetry  in  light  colors  and  the 
mechanical  devices  he  added  to  his  furniture.  The  use  of 
beautiful  tapestry  characterized  this  reign  and  delicate  silks 
in  which  the  feather  was  a  favorite  device.  The  great  use 
of  the  stripe  was  also  characteristic,  and  in  the  days  of  the 
Direcioire  it  became  a  passion. 

The  Adam  Style 

Turning  back  to  England,  we  may  note  that  the  taste  was  / 
changing  in  the  days  of  Chippendale's  great  fame;   and  it 
is  not  unlikely  that  furniture  was  even  sent  from  his  shop 
in  the  Adam  taste.     In  Harewood  House,  the  residence  of 
the  Earl  of  Harewood,  many  original  bills  and  documents 

73 


Furniture 

show  that  Chippendale  worked  there  with  and  under  Robert 
Adam.  Much  of  the  furniture  still  in  existence  was  made 
by  him  and  in  the  Adam  Style,  though  occasionally  a  piece  is 
found  in  his  favorite  rococo  manner.  In  this  house  Rose, 
Zucchi,  Rebecci  and  Collins  were  also  employed ;  but  Robert 
Adam  was  the  decorative  architect.  Harewood  House  with 
this  amazing  combination,  presents  the  best  exhibition  of  the 
transition,  between  the  rocaille  as  practised  in  England  and 
the  neo-classic  style  of  the  Adams. 

Just  as  the  French  were  tiring  of  the  rocaille,  so  in  Eng- 
land taste  rebelled  against  what,  for  want  of  a  better  name, 
we  may  call  the  ''  Chippendale  Style."  To  the  architects 
Robert  and  James  Adam,  the  change  of  style  must  be  largely 
attributed.  Attracted  by  old  Roman  architecture  Robert 
Adam  went  to  Nimes  in  1754;  to  Rome  in  1756;  and,  with 
the  French  architect,  Clerisseau,  to  Dalmatia  in  1757.  The 
remains  of  Diocletian's  Palace  at  Spalatro  gave  him  the 
models  he  wanted ;  and  of  this  Palace  he  published  a  descrip- 
tive work  with  engravings  by  Bartolozzi. 

In  1762,  Robert  Adam  was  appointed  architect  to  the  King ; 
and,  with  James,  designed  a  great  number  of  houses  in 
London,  Edinburgh,  Dublin,  Bath,  Glasgow  and  elsewhere 
in  the  United  Kingdom. 

"  Most  of  the  houses  erected  by  Robert  Adam  were 
decorated  and  furnished  from  his  own  designs.  The  chim- 
ney-pieces, cornices,  doors,  chairs,  tables,  cabinets,  mirrors, 
the  wall-papers,  chair-coverings,  door-knockers  —  even  once 
for  the  King,  a  counterpane  —  appear  in  his  designs.  No 
part  of  the  house  and  nothing  in  its  contents  was  too  insig- 
nificant to  be  included  in  his  sketches.  Everything  was 
carried  out  in  the  same  style,  a  style  which  combined 
comfort  with  elegance. 

"  There  is  no  doubt  that  Robert  was  greatly  helped  in 
his  decorative  work  by  Michele  Angelo  Pergolesi,  who  came 

74 


n 


H  " 

X 


Styles  and  Schools 


over  with  him  from  Italy.  Angelica  Kauffmann,  Cipriani, 
Zucchi,  and  Columbani  also  painted  plaques  and  ornamental 
designs  of  many  kinds.  A  great  deal  of  '  Adam  '  decorative 
work  is  wrongly  attributed  to  Angelica  Kauffmann." 

The  lines  of  the  furniture  became  more  architectural  than 
under  the  Chippendale  period;  and  the  ornaments  sug- 
gested by  the  antique  consist  of  festoons  of  husks  or  bell- 
flowers,  thin  swags  of  drapery,  stars,  medallions, 
rosettes,  bulls'  and  rams'  heads,  wreaths,  cupids, 
grifiins,  sphinxes,  lozenge-shaped  panels,  knots 
of  ribbon,  caryatides,  Greek,  Roman  or  Etruscan 
vases  and  a  radiating  ornament  such  as  a  fan  or 
the  rising  sun.  "  Plaques  on  which  classical  sub- 
jects were  depicted  by  well-known  decorative 
artists  of  the  day  were  frequently  used  for  the 
ornamentation  of  Adam  furniture.  Figure  sub- 
jects were  also  inlaid  and  so  delicately  executed 
that  at  a  short  distance  they  appear  to  be  paint- 
ings. Satin-wood  was  introduced  into  England 
from  the  East  Indies  about  this  period  and  added  pole-screen 
a  new  note  of  color  to  houses  where  mahogany 
or  gilded  furniture  had  so  long  reigned  supreme.  At  first 
the  new  wood  was  mainly  used  for  inlaying  purposes. 
Adam  is  supposed  to  have  employed  Capitsoldi  as  well  as 
other  Italian  and  French  metal  workers  for  the  making  of 
gilt-bronze  mountings.  Occasionally  the  work  was  fine  and 
delicate,  but  as  a  general  rule  metal  ornaments  on  English 
furniture  were  not  equal  either  in  color,  design,  or  execu- 
tion to  those  of  Gouthiere  and  Caffieri  in  France."  ^ 

There  is  very  little  Adam  furniture  in  existence.     An 
Adam  pier,  or  console-table,  appears,   however,  on  Plate 
XXXVII. ,  of  inlaid  satin-wood  and  mahogany.    The  balus- 
ter and  tapering,  fluted  legs  are  gilt,  the  frieze  consists 
^  Constance  Simon. 

75 


[y 


Furniture 

of  a  band  of  pendant  leaf-cups  and  trumpet  ornament  in 
beaded  tongue  outline,  and  the  central  decoration  consists 
of  an  oblong  panel  of  inlaid  satin-wood,  mahogany,  and  tulip 
wood  painted  with  a  medallion  head  in  grisaille  wreathed 
with  laurel  and  festooned  with  a  row  of  pink  roses  tied  with 
blue  ribbons.  The  semi-circular  top  is  finely  painted  in  rich 
colors  with  swags  of  flowers  alternating  with  cameo  medal- 
lion heads  in  grisaille,  suspended  from  knots  of  blue  ribbon. 
In  the  centre  is  an  oblong  panel  with  Phoebus  in  grisaille,  in 
borders  of  arabesque  foliage  in  orange  and  grisaille.  The 
border  of  the  top  is  inlaid  with  a  scalloped  band  painted  with 
festoons  of  drapery  and  trophies.  The  whole  is  trimmed 
with  a  narrow  band  of  tulip-wood. 

The  Heppelwhite  Style 

The  next  style  of  importance  is  Heppelwhite  that  lasted 
from  about  1785  to  1795.  It  seems  that  A.  Heppelwhite 
and  Co.  stands  for  Alice  Heppelwhite,  the  widow  of  George 
Heppelwhite,  who  soon  after  his  death  (about  1786)  issued 
The  Cabinet-Maker  and  Upholsterer's  Guide,  which  passed 
through  three  editions  (1788,  1789  and  1794). 

ple^aince  and  utility  were  the  watchwords  of  this  school ; 
and  it  is  notabte'that  the  firm  did  not  claim  to  have  origi- 
nated their  designs.  In  the  Preface  the  Heppelwhites  say 
"  Our  judgment  was  called  forth  in  selecting  some  patterns 
as  were  most  likely  to  be  of  general  use,  and  in  exhibiting 
such  fashions  as  were  necessary  to  answer  the  end  proposed 
and  convey  a  just  idea  of  English  taste  in  furniture  for 
houses." 

Heppelwhite  furniture  was  made  in  mahogany  or  painted 
and  japanned  (a  very  different  process  from  the  lacquers  of 
Vernis  Martin).  Heppelwhite  was  fond  of  inlaying  and 
also  carving.     Perhaps  of  all  his  furniture,  his  chairs  are 

76 


fi. 

•%    ^ 

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P       >-H 

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In 

5S    ^ 

c    J". 

<: 

3   ^ 


Styles  and  Schools 


the  most  famous;  but  his  sideboards  are  much  valued  and 
his  girandoles  and  mirror-frames  are  noted  for  their  grace 
and  delicacy.  Many  of  Heppelwhite's  tables  contain  me- 
chanical devices,  which  at  this  date  were  so  popular  in 
France,  and  which  Sheraton  was  going  to  take  up.  Heppel- 
white  was  devoted  to  the  straight  leg  with  the  "  spade  " 
foot ;  u:!ts  the  bell-flower  in  swags  or  chutes;  the  shell ;  the 
draped  urn ;  the  lotus ;  and  the  three  feathers  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales.  He  also  likes  the  festoon  and  tassel  in  drapery, 
and  the  stripe  is  his  favorite  seat  covering,  which  shows  that 
he  was  quite  abreast  of  the  French  fads  and  fancies. 

All  of  the  Heppel white  characteristics  are  shown  in  the 
desk  on  Plate  XXXVIII.  and  the  chair  on  Plate  XL.  The 
desk,  it  will  be  noted,  has  his  favorite  inlaid  urn  in  the 
central  door,  his  tambour-shutter  that  mysteriously  disap- 
pears when  pushed  aside,  his  spade  foot  and  his  general  air 
of  lightness.  The  handsome  mahogany  chair  has  a  shield 
back  carved  with  the  lotus  and  bell-flower. 

Thomas  Shearer 

Thomas  Shearer's  plates  are  contained  in  the  first  two 
editions  of  the  Cabinet-Maker's  London  Book  of  Prices  and 
Designs  (1778  and  1793),  intended  principally  for  the  use 
of  the  trade. 

"  Shearer,  however,  had  his  limits,  and  they  are  strongly 
marked.  No  contemporary  designer,  not  everii  Sheraton  at 
his  best,  can  be  held  to  have  surpassed  him  in  the  combina- 
tion of  daintiness  and  simplicity;  but  he  was  far  behind 
both  Sheraton  and  Heppelwhite  in  the  application  of  the 
more  florid  form  of  ornament.  What  he  possibly  may 
have  considered  his  chef  d'oeuvre  is  a  sideboard,  the  first  of 
its  kind  (so  far  as  dated  designs  go)  to  be  really  a  side- 
board and  not  a  sideboard  table  with  drawers  introduced, 

77 


Furniture 

It  may  or  may  not  have  been  the  first  attempt  to  combine  a 
sideboard  table  and  the  pedestals  and  vases  which  went  with 
it  into  one  article,  but  it  is  certainly  first  as  regards  date  of 
publication.  Its  interest,  however,  is  more  historical  than 
artistic.  It  effectually  disposes  of  the  idea  that  we  owe  the 
sideboard  proper  to  Sheraton  "  ^ 

The  sideboard  on  Plate  LVI  gives,  like  many  of  the  de- 
signs of  the  period,  two  separate  suggestions  for  patterns. 
Even  the  knife-cases  that  stand  on  the  pedestals  are  equipped 
with  different  handles,  so  that  the  man  who  orders  his  fur- 
niture made  can  select  exactly  what  pleases  him.  It  is  a 
typical  specimen  of  Shearer  at  his  best. 

Shearer  was  also  strong  in  tables.  His  style,  generally 
speaking,  resembles  Heppelwhite,  and  Sheraton  admired 
him  so  much  that  much  of  his  style  is  founded  on  this  some- 
what neglected  man. 

The  Sheraton  Style 

y-      Thomas  Sheraton  covers  two  periods  —  that  of  Louis 

S  XVI.  and  the  Empire,  and  consequently  all  the  character- 

/  istics  of  each  are  found  in  his  work.     He  seems  to  have 

followed  the   French  taste  very  closely;    but  instead  of 

using  Sevres  plaques  in  his  commodes y  etc.,  he  inserted 

compositions   by   Wedgwood.      He   restricted   the   use   of 

mahogany  to  the  dining-room,  library,  and  bed-room;  and 

for  chairs  with  carved  backs.     His  drawing-room  furniture 

was   white  and  gold;    rosewood;    satin-wood;    or  wood 

painted  and  japanned.     Silk  or  satin  designed  with  oval 

medallions  or  pretty  stripes  were  used  for  the  coverings 

of  his  seats.     The  cabinet,  the  commode  and  the  secretary 

received  much  attention  from  his  hands,  and  he  designed 

most  elaborate  beds,  draperies  and  dressing-tables.     The 

»  R.  S.  Clouston. 

78 


X 


o 


n 

3 

B 

p 


M 

X 
X 
X 
< 


Styles  and  Schools 


latter  were  often  provided  with  tambour-shutters  and  in- 
genious devices  for  concealing  mirrors  and  other  toilet 
appliances.  Pretty  articles  for  ladies  attracted  his  atten- 
tion, and  his  combinations  of  work-table  and  writing-table, 
with  tambour-shutters,  or  bags,  are  marvels  of  compactness 
and  convenience.  The  cellaret  sideboard  was  much  de- 
veloped by  him  and  also  such  small  articles  as  knife-cases, 
dumb-waiters  and  supper-trays  received  attention.  In 
short,  everything  that  the  man  of  wealth,  or  his  wife,  or 
the  butler  within  his  gates  could  desire  are  found  in  his 
books.  Sheraton  used  a  great  deal  of  brass  orna- 
ment, in  the  way  of  handles,  key-plates,  claw-feet 
and  rails,  and  also  in  the  form  of  beading  and  thin 
lines  of  inlay.  The  lyre,  the  bell-flower,  the  fes- 
toon, or  swag,  the  urn,  the  patera  (the  latter  used 
to  hide  the  joining  of  chair-frames  and  screws 

.,,,>,  ,..  .  TT«  CHAIR-BACK 

of  the  bed)  are  his  favorite  ornaments.  His  byshera- 
chair  leg  is  often  reeded  or  turned.  One  of  his  ^^^'  ^^^^ 
great  accomplishments  lay  in  veneering  with  satin-wood. 
Sheraton  kept  up  with  the  taste  of  the  day  and  condescend- 
ingly said  that  Chippendale's  designs  were  "  possessed  of 
great  merit  according  to  the  times  in  which  they  were  exe- 
cuted "  but  were  now  *'  wholly  antiquated  and  laid  aside." 

No  one  would  imagine  that  the  designs  in  The  Cabinet- 
Maker  and  Upholsterer's  Drawing-Book,  published  in  1791, 
and  those  in  The  Cabinet  Dictionary  and  Sheraton's  Ency- 
clopaedia, published  in  1803  and  in  1806-07,  came  from  the 
same  hand.  The  Empire  influence  is  seen  at  its  worst  in 
many  instances  in  the  two  latter ;  and  instead  of  being  some- 
what redeemed  by  the  fine  bronze  work  of  the  French,  the 
ornaments  were  carved  in  wood  and  gilded  or  colored  in 
bronze  green.  Sheraton  must  have  tried  to  please  all  tastes,, 
for  side  by  side  with  these  abominations  some  very  at- 
tractive models  are  to  be  seen. 

79 


Furniture 

The  chair  on  Plate  X]^  belongs  to  Sheraton's  early 
period  and  is  a  splendid  example  of  his  work.  Here  the 
central  splat  consists  of  the  draped  urn.  The  open  square 
back  is  of  beautiful  proportions.  This  chair  and  its  com- 
panion are  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York. 

On  Plate  XLL  appears  a  Sheraton  cabinet,  which  also 
belongs  to  his  early  period  and  is  made  of  rich  materials 
harmoniously  brought  together.  Perhaps  it  would  be  better 
to  classify  it  as  a  commode. 

This  piece  is  6  feet  8^  inches  long  and  of  satin-wood, 
tulip-wood,  hare-wood  and  painted  panels.  The  central 
door,  inlaid  with  trellis  and  rosette  design,  contains  an  oval 
panel  of  the  Three  Graces  adorning  a  statue  of  Pan  in  a 
landscape.  This  was  painted  by  Angelica  Kauffmann.  The 
sides  are  concave  and  are  decorated  with  panels  inlaid  with 
vases  of  flowers  in  colored  woods.  The  frieze,  legs  and 
feet  are  enriched  with  finely  chased  ornaments  of  or  moiilu, 
festoons  of  flowers  attached  to  circular  bosses,  paterae 
mounts  at  the  angles,  and  rosette  and  reeded  and  ribbon 
borders.  The  feet  are  or  moulu  representing  acanthus  foli- 
age. The  top  is  decorated  with  twelve  circular  medallions 
representing  classical  female  figures  painted  by  Angelica 
Kauffmann,  encircled  by  two  rows  of  inlaid  husks;  and 
above  a  semi-circular  design  of  shells  and  husks  in  col- 
ored woods,  brightened  with  mother-of-pearl,  completes  the 
decoration. 

The  chairs  on  Plate  XLII.  belong  to  Sheraton's  later 
period  and  are  the  parents  of  the  "  Fancy  Chair "  that 
became  popular  at  the  beginning  of  the  Nineteenth  Century. 
These  chairs  have  cane  seats  and  the  backs  a  rectangular 
panel  of  open  trellis  and  rosette  design  in  the  centre.  The  top 
rail  is  painted.  The  turned  baluster  legs  are  also  painted  but 
in  grisaille.  A  suite  of  this  kind  usually  consisted  of  six 
chairs,  two  arm-chairs  and  a  settee  with  quadruple  back. 

80 


Plate  XXXVII 

Adam  Console-Table  and  Top 


Styles  and  Schools 


The  Empire  Style 

Very  little  of  the  furniture  of  the  Old  Regime  would 
have  survived  the  French  Revolution  had  not  the  National 
Convention  appointed  a  Commission  of  leaders  in  art 
to  determine  what  objects  should  be  preserved.  The  painter 
David  and  the  cabinet-maker  Riesener,  served  on  this  com- 
mission. 

"  Farewell  to  marquetry  and  Boulle,"  the  people  cried ; 
"  farewell  to  ribbons,  festoons  and  rosettes  of  gilded  bronze.  \ 
The  hour  has  come  when  everything  must  be  made  to 
harmonize  with  circumstances." 

Every  new  piece  of  furniture  was  designed  in  sympathy  | 
with  the  politics  of  the  day.     There  was  a  return  to  old] 
Greek  forms  for  chairs  and  couches ;   sacrificial  altars  were' 
used    for   ladies'   work-tables;    and   the   beds  were  called 
"  Patriotic,"  for  the  posts  were  formed  of  lances  and  upon 
the  top  of  each  was  placed  the  Phrygian  cap  of  liberty. 
Antique  heads  of  helmeted  soldiers  and  winged  victories 
were  omnipresent. 

The  short-lived  Directoire  Style  merged  in- 
sensibly into  the  Empire  Style.  The  Empire  was 
proclaimed  May  i8,  1804;  but  the  Style  had 
long  been  on  its  way.  Bonaparte's  expedition  to 
Syria  and  Egypt  in  1796  naturally  rendered  the 
sphynx  and  other  Egyptian  motives  popular; 
but  they  were  not  new  to  France. 

On  Napoleon's  appointment  as  First  Consul 
in  1799,  when  it  was  necessary  for  him  to  have 
certain  palaces  re-decorated,  nothing  was  thought  more  ap- 
propriate than  the  newly  developing  style  that  was  destined 
to  receive  the  name  "  Empire." 

Percier  was  responsible  for  the  designs  of  the  furniture. 

81 


:>*-^ 


DIRECTOIRE 
CHAIR,    1793 


Furniture 

He  followed  the  styles  that  the  painter  David  had  made 
the  fashion;  and  the  greater  number  of  his  designs  were 
made  by  Jacob  Desmalter,  who  is  generally  referred  to  as 
Jacob.  The  only  charm  and  brilliancy  of  the  sumptuous 
examples  of  the  day  are  owing  to  their  bronze-gilt  ornamen- 
tations, and  these  fine  decorations  were  made  by  Thomire. 
Many  of  them  are  very  beautiful,  representing  figures,  floral 
devices  and  classic  ornaments. 

Among  other  cabinet-makers  who  worked  under  the 
direction  of  Percier,  and  who  were  assisted  by  Thomire  for 
the  bronze  sculpture  and  mounts,  were :  F.  J.  Pabst,  Simon 
Mansion,  J.  P.  Louis,  J.  A.  Bruns,  Marcion,  and  Lemar- 
chand.  It  may  be  also  noted  that  when  Percier  and  Fon- 
taine gathered  together  all  their  scattered  plates  and  pub- 
lished their  book  on  Empire  Furniture  in  1809,  the  Style 
had  been  nearly  ten  years  in  vogue. 

Of  course,  the  Style  spread;  for  wherever  Napoleon's 
brothers  established  a  court  they  carried  the  new  fur- 
niture with  them.  Even  Joseph  Bonaparte  brought  some 
splendid  suites  to  America  to  furnish  his  home,  Point 
Breeze,  in  New  Jersey. 

The  imitators,  who  followed  the  heavy  models  of  pier- 
tables,  console-tables,  sideboards,  beds,  chairs  and  sofas, 
deprived  them  of  their  brilliant  ornamentation;  and  fur- 
niture grew  ever  heavier  as  the  Nineteenth  Century 
advanced. 

The  Empire  Style  was  in  high  favor  for  about  twenty 
years,  and  to-day  it  has  its  admirers.  Many  modern  critics 
decry  it,  however.    Thus  Molinier  writes : 

"Only  one  thing  allows  us  to  pardon  the  furniture  of 
the  First  Empire  for  its  incoherence  of  form  and  decoration, 
and  that  is  the  excessive  conscientiousness  that  presides 
over  its  execution:  from  a  technical  point  of  view  the 
cabinet-work  and  the  bronze-work  are  irreproachable.    But 

82 


Plate  XXXVIII 

Heppelwhite  Desk  with  Tambour  Shutters 
Metropolitan  Museum 


Styles  and  Schools 


at  this  point  we  should  stop  the  eulogies  that  have  been 
given  too  long  to  what  may  be  called  a  caricature  of  the 
French  style  in  the  second  half  of  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury." 

The  form  of  the  Empire  furniture  is  cubic  and  rectan- 
gular. The  carved  figure  of  a  swan  often  occurs  on  the  arms 
of  chairs,  sofas,  and  sides  of  the  beds.  The  enormous 
scroll  is  also  much  in  evidence. 

The  Empire  Style  was  not  known  by  that  name  at  the 
time  it  flourished :  it  was  generally  called  the  "  Antique," 
and  this  was  divided  into  separate  classes :  —  Egyptian, 
Greek  and  Roman.  Percier  and  Fontaine  headed  the  school 
in  Paris;  but  the  man  who  did  the  most  to  popularize  the 
taste  for  ancient  design  in  London  was  Thomas  Hope 
(called  Anastasius).  His  Household  Furniture,  which 
completely  revolutionized  taste  in  England,  appeared  in 
1805.  The  designs  of  Percier  and  Fontaine  were  not  pub- 
lished until  1809.  Hope  had  travelled  extensively  in  the 
Levant,  and  was  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  "  Egyptian 
Roman  "  design.  He  met  with  much  ridicule,  but  had  a  big 
following.  Another  authority  of  the  day  was  George  Smith, 
who  was  "  Upholsterer  Extraordinary  "  to  the  Prince  of 
Wales.  In  1808  he  published  a  book  of  designs  that  were 
frankly  taken  from  the  new  French  furniture  fashions. 
His  observations  on  the  woods  in  use  are  interesting: 

"  Mahogany,  when  used  in  houses  of  consequence,  should 
be  confined  to  the  parlor  and  the  bedchamber  floors.  In 
furniture  for  these  apartments  the  less  inlay  of  other  woods, 
the  more  chaste  will  be  the  style  of  work.  If  the  wood  be 
of  a  fine,  compact  and  bright  quality,  the  ornaments  may 
be  carved  clean  in  the  mahogany.  Where  it  may  be  re- 
quisite to  make  out  panelling  by  an  inlay  of  lines,  let  those 
lines  be  of  brass  or  ebony.  In  the  drawing-rooms,  boudoirs, 
anterooms,  East  and  West  India  satin-woods,  rosewood, 

83 


Furniture 

tulip- wood,  and  the  other  varieties  of  woods  brought  from 
the  East,  may  be  used;  with  satin  and  Hght  colored  woods 
the  decorations  may  be  of  ebony  or  rosewood;  with  rose- 
wood let  the  decorations  be  or  motilu,  and  the  inlay  of  brass. 

Bronze  metal,  though  some- 
times used  with  satin-wood, 
has  a  cold  and  poor  effect;  it 
suits  better  on  gilt  work,  and 
will  answer  well  enough  on 
mahogany." 

On  Plate  XLIII.  appear  two  chairs  of  the  Empire  Style : 
one  French  and  the  other  English. 

In  1806  we  read  in  a  fashion  paper  that  there  has  been 
a  change  in  interior  decoration,  "  a  style  of  furniture  drawn 
from  the  florid  Ionic  "  being  substituted  for  the  Egyptian. 
Movables  of  domestic  use  are  now  "  designed  after  the 
purest  Grecian  taste."  The  writer  goes  on  to  explain  that 
"a  more  grand  and  beautiful  outline  is  adopted  in  the 
shape  of  each  piece  of  furniture,"  and  that  "all  mahogany 
furniture  is  now  divested  of  inlaid  ornaments.  Chairs, 
sofas,  tables,  etc.,  used  in  drawing-rooms  are  all  covered 
with  gold  or  a  mixture  of  bronze  and  gold."  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  we  learn  that  chairs  and  sofas  are  made  after 
drawings  from  the  antique  in  rosewood  and  gold,  mahogany 
and  gold,  or  black  and  gold,  and  that  the  windows  are 
draped  in  the  Grecian  and  Roman  style,  and  that  antique 
and  Grecian  lamps  in  bronze  and  or  moulu  are  suspended 
from  the  centres  of  rooms  or  alcoves,  while  antique  cande- 
labra, with  branches  for  many  candles,  stand  on  the  rose- 
wood and  gold  pier-tables  and  the  chimney-pieces. 

An  English  fashion  paper,  in  1807,  mentions  that 
"  Antique  candelabras,  rosewood  and  gold  pier-tables  and 
the  chimney-pieces,  are  most  adapted  to  receive  lights  on 
which  are  introduced  bronze  and  or  moulu  figures,  etc.,  with 

84 


ol 
n 

o 

•I 

> 


a.  X 


C/2 


Styles  and  Schools 


branches  to  receive  wax  candles.  The  antique  and  Grecian 
lamps  in  bronze  and  or  moulu  are  also  suspended  in  the 
centre  of  rooms  or  alcoves.  Window  curtains  of  chintz, 
with  Roman  and  antique  draperies,  and  silk  fringes,  etc., 
to  correspond,  are  truly  elegant.  Chairs  and  sofas  still 
continue  from  drawings  after  the  antique,  in  rosewood 
and  gold,  mahogany  and  gold,  or  black  and  gold." 

Another  fashion  in  the  early  days  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century,  which  was  much  liked  in  this  country,  was  a  taste 
for  the  light  "  Fancy  Chair "  and  "  Fancy 
Sofa,"  which  accorded  well  with  the  taste  for 
straw  matting,  window-blinds,  etc.  In  1802 
and  1803,  straw  matting,  silk  curtains,  window- 
blinds  and  chinaware  frequently  come  to  New 
York  from  Canton.  For  instance,  in  1803, 
King  and  Talbot,  14  Crane  Wharf,  receive 
"  printed  calicoes  and  chintzes,  950  Chinese 
chair  bottoms,  100  boxes  China  ware,  and  30  "fancy  chair," 
bundles  of  window-blinds."     Checquered  and  '^'° 

straw-colored  floor  mats  and  Nankin  mats  and  India  hearth 
rugs  and  India  straw^  matting  are  imported  in  1803  and 
1806;  and  "  green  window-blinds  from  China,"  "  straw  car- 
peting "  and  India  straw  matting  come  in  1809.  ^^  1807,  we 
also  hear  of  India,  Brussels  and  English  rugs  of  Egyptian 
and  Grecian  figures  and  "  Brussels  and  Venetian  carpeting 
of  different  widths  of  the  newest  fashion  in  the  Grecian  and 
Egyptian  style." 

The  New  York  newspapers  contain  many  advertisements 
of  Grecian,  Roman  and  Etruscan  sofas,  chairs  and  lamps; 
and  it  seems  that  many  people  of  fashion  abolished  their 
handsome  old  ball-and-claw  foot  mahogany  furniture  for 
the  art  nouvean  of  the  day,  just  as  they  destroyed  their 
old  trees  to  make  place  for  avenues  of  Lombardy  poplars. 
Washington  Irving  notes  this  in  his  Salmagundi: 

85 


Furniture 

"  Style  has  ruined  the  peace  and  harmony  of  many  a 
worthy  household;  for  no  sooner  do  they  set  up  for  style, 
but  instantly  all  the  honest,  old  comfortable  sans  ceremonie 
furniture  is  discarded,  and  you  stalk  cautiously  about 
amongst  the  uncomfortable  splendor  of  Grecian  chairs, 
Etruscan  tables,  Turkey  carpets,  and  Etruscan  vases.  This 
vast  improvement  in  furniture  demands  an  increase  in  the 
domestic  establishment,  and  a  family  that  once  required 
two  or  three  servants  for  convenience  now  employ  half  a 
dozen   for  style." 

In  1809,  a  decorator  notes  that  "  bronze  still  prevails 
as  a  g-round-work  for  chairs,  etc.,  and  will  always  be  classic 
when  delicately  and  sparingly  assisted  with  gold  ornaments. 
A  great  deal  of  black  has  been  used  in  chairs,  etc.,  but 
the  appearance  is  harsh  and  the  contrast  too  violent  to  be 
appreciated  by  genuine  and  correct  taste;  its  cheapness  can 
alone  make  its  use  tolerable." 

"  Gothic,"  as  then  understood,  began  to  assert  itself  about 
i8io,  but  does  not  seem  to  have  become  popular  until  after 
181 3,  when  a  writer  pleads  for  it,  noting  meanwhile  that 
"  in  our  own  time  the  French  style  gave  way  to  the  Roman 
and  that  to  the  Greek;  and  then  the  Persian  and  the 
Egyptian  were  brought  forward  "  but  "  failed  to  supersede 
those  chaste  models  of  harmony  and  truth." 

As  it  made  its  way,  decorators  recognized  it,  as  will  be 
seen  in  the  following  dictum  in  181 7  of  one  who  thinks  that 
"  Every  part  of  the  furniture  in  a  room  should  accord,  as 
few  things  are  so  disgusting  to  the  eye  of  taste  as  the  incon- 
gruous mixture  which  is  often  seen,  even  in  expensively 
furnished  houses,  where  the  Grecian  and  Gothic,  the  Roman 
and  the  Chinese  styles  are  absurdly  jumbled  together." 

The  rise  of  the  new  Gothic  taste  is  interestingly  accounted 
for  by  a  writer  in  Ackermann's  Repository  in  181 9,  who 
describes  some  new  designs  for  furniture.    It  is  interesting 

86 


n 


n 


> 

W 


i>i??i:. 


Styles  and  Schools 


to  see  what  he  calls  "  Gothic,"  and  how  he  traces  its  de- 
velopment. As  far  as  he  is  concerned,  the  Chippendale 
"  Gothic  "  never  had  an  existence.     He  writes : 

"  The  annexed  examples  are  of  the  unsystemised  art, 
which  is  often  called  Gothic,  but  which  should  properly  be 
termed  Tedeschi,  or  old  German,  being  of  the  style  which 
was  substituted  for  the  Greek  and  Roman  forms  of  the 
purer  ages.  The  Italians,  to  designate  this  perversion  of 
art,  called  every  departure  from  the  genuine  models  by 
the  name  of  Gothic,  although  widely  differing  from  the 
style  adopted  by  the  Saxons  and  Goths ;  and  left  it  to  later 
times  to  give  names  to  each  particular  style  that  the  feeling 
and  genius  of  any  people  might  cultivate. 

"  The  style  of  furniture  exhibited  prevailed  in  the  man- 
sions of  the  first  rank  in  Germany  in  the  Fifteenth  Century; 
and  although  a  purer  taste  has  succeeded  from  the  high  cul- 
tivation of  art  in  that  country,  yet  its  fitness  and  corre- 
spondence to  some  of  our  own  ancient  buildings  render 
the  annexed  examples  of  genuine  Tedeschi  furniture  very 
desirable." 

There  was  a  gr^;^j[2^.4^^^^^^^^^^j^m':^^  this  period. 
The  draped  sofa  remamed  in  fashion,  and  the  fashion 
papers  publish  new  designs  for  curtains  in  nearly  every 
issue.     In  1816,  one  of  them  says: 

"  Perhaps  no  furniture  is  more  decorative  and  graceful 
than  that  of  which  draperies  form  a  c'onsiderable  part;  the 
easy  disposition  of  the  folds  of  curtains  and  other  hangings, 
the  sweep  of  the  lines  composing  their  forms,  and  the  har- 
monious combinations  of  their  colors,  produced  a  charm 
that  brought  them  into  high  repute,  but  eventually  occasioned 
their  use  in  so  liberal  a  degree  as  in  many  instances  to  have 
clothed  up  the  ornamented  walls,  and  in  others  they 
have  been  substituted  entirely  for  their  more  genuine  decora- 
tions, by  which  the  rooms  obtained  the  air  of  a  mercer's  or 

87 


Furniture 

a  draper's  shop  in  full  display  of  its  merchandise,  rather 
than  the  well  imagined  and  correctly  designed  apartment 
of  a  British  edifice:  indeed,  to  so  great  an  excess  was  this 
system  of  ornamental  finishing  by  draperies  carried,  that 
it  became  the  usual  observation  of  a  celebrated  amateur  in 
this  way,  that  he  would  be  quite  satisfied  if  a  well-propor- 
tioned barn  was  provided,  and  would  in  a  week  convert 
it,  by  such  means,  into  a  drawing-room  of  the  first  style 
and  fashion.  So  long  as  novelty  favored  the  application, 
this  redundance  was  tolerated;  but  time  has  brought  the 
uses  of  these  draperies  to  their  proper  office  of  conforming 
to  the  original  design,  consisting  of  those  architectural  com- 
binations that  possess  a  far  greater  beauty,  dignity  and 
variety  than  draperies  are  capable  of  affording." 

Another  writes  in  the  same  year: 

"In  fashions  as  in  manners  it  sometimes  happens  that 
one  extreme  immediately  usurps  the  place  of  the  others  with- 
out regarding  their  intervening  degrees  of  approximation. 
For  the  precise  in  dress  the  French  have  adopted  the  dis- 
habille;  and  it  has  been  applied  to  their  articles  of  furniture 
in  many  instances,  giving  to  them  an  air  which  the  amateurs 
term  the  neglige.  In  the  annexed  plate  the  design  of  a  lit 
de  repos,  or  sofa  bed,  has  a  peculiar  character  of  unaffected 
ease,  and  is  not  without  its  full  claims  to  elegance.  The 
sofa  is  of  the  usual  construction,  and  the  draperies  are 
thrown  over  a  sceptre  rod,  projecting  from  the  walls  of  the 
apartment :  they  are  of  silk  as  is  the  courte-pointe  also." 

A  suite  of  draperies  for  a  bow  window  in  1819  "  are 
fancifully  suspended  from  carved  devices  relating  to  vint- 
age and  the  splendors  of  the  year;  indicative  of  which, 
the  central  ornament  is  a  golden  peacock,  whose  displayed 
plumage  being  delicately  colored  in  parts  so  as  to  imitate 
the  richness  of  its  nature,  the  effect  is  considerably  increased. 
The  swags  are  arranged  with  an  easy  lightness  and  the  fes- 


)  >  5      >   ^       '  '     '    'l 


Plate  XLI 
Sheraton  Dwarf  Cabinet  and  Top 


Styles  and  Schools 


toons  with  unusual  variety  of  style  and  form;  they 
are  comprised  of  light  blue  silk  and  lined  with  pink 
taffeta." 

Mr.  Stafford  of  Bath  gives,  in  1819,  "  an  elegant  drapery 
of  light  green  silk  and  pink  taffetas  linings ;  the  sub-curtains 
are  of  clear  muslin.  The  festoon  draperies  are  supported  by 
the  eagle  of  Jupiter  embracing  the  thunderbolt  by  arrows 
which  have  pierced  the  wall  and  by  termini  of  foliages: 
these  draperies  are  decorated  by  an  embossed  applique  border 
which  forms  double  rows  upon  the  festoons  and  divides 
the  curtains  from  the  extreme  supports  over  which  it  falls, 
as  if  suspended  by  them;  the  curtains  are  also  bordered  by 
a  silk  open  fringe." 

In  1820,  Mr.  Stafford  designs  some  curtains  that  he  de- 
scribes as  "playful  swags  of  blue  relieved  by  buff  sub- 
curtains."  Beneath  them  hang  long  white  "  under  curtains." 
A  "  Paladian  window,"  also  of  his  invention,  is  draped  in 
blue  and  lilac  silk  and  taffetas  with  gilt  carved  supports, 
gold-colored  lines,  tassels,  fringes  and  trimming  and  white 
transparent  under  curtains.    The  leading  drapery  is  blue. 

During  the  Restoration  of 
the  Monarchy,  which  lasted 
from  181 5  to  1830,  a  distress- 
ing amount  of  fine  old  furni- 
ture was  destroyed  to  make 
way  for  the  cumbrous  and  "^  m^ridienne.  1820 
heavy  models  that  followed  the 

general  style  of  the  Empire,  with  sabre  legs  and  scrolled 
arms  and  feet  and  general  heaviness.  This  period  of  ma- 
hogany and  rosewood  was  succeeded  by  the  "  comfortable  " 
period,  when  the  seats  consisted  solely  of  upholstery  and 
showed  no  wood-work.  The  soft-tufted  sofas,  easy-chairs, 
tete-a-tete  pouf  and  home  are  still  within  the  memory  of  the 
present  generation  and  are  constantly  met  with  in  out-of- 

89 


Furniture 

the-way  and  old-fashioned  hotels,  on  both  sides  of  the 
ocean. 

Simultaneously  with  the  craze  for  upholstered  furniture, 
French  cabinet-makers  had  been  trying  to  revive  old  types 
and  models.  Gothic  forms  and  ornamentation  were  revived 
and  then  the  Renaissance  held  its  sway  for  a  time.  The 
artisans  copied  badly,  but  even  bad  copies  helped  the  taste; 
and  about  1850,  excellent  furniture,  particularly  chairs  and 
sofas  were  made  in  the  style  Louis  XV.  and  the  style  Louis 
XV L  The  strange  jumble  that  followed  the  Empire  is 
sometimes  referred  to  as  the  style  troubadour. 

A  revival  of  the  Louis  XV.  scrolls  and  curves,  but  with 
less  character  and  restraint  than  the  original,  also  took 
place  and  finally  what  is  known  as  baroque  ^  or  de- 
based rococo  took  the  field,  when  ornaments  were  prolifi- 
cally  used  for  the  sake  of  display  rather  than  for  appropriate 
adornment. 

From  1830  to  1850,  fine  arts  were  a  passion  in  France, 
as  well  as  a  fashion.  The  wealthy  collected  paintings,  and 
those  in  moderate  circumstances  followed  suit;  then,  from 
1840  to  i860  music  reigned  supreme,  and  no  drawing-room 
was  considered   furnished  without  a  piano. 

After  that  period  the  rage  for  general  collecting  began, 
and  houses  were  filled  with  curios  of  all  kinds.  The  cabi- 
net and  the  series  of  shelves  known  as  the  Stag  ere  descended 
into  comparatively  plain  homes. 

Of  late  years  the  return  to  good  styles  of  old  periods 
has  been  far  more  marked  than  the  support  of  Vart 
nouveau. 

Side  by  side  with  debased  Empire  forms,  in  England, 

*  The  word  baroque,  which  became  a  generic  term,  was  derived  from  the 
Portuguese  "barrocco,"  meaning  a  large  irregular-shaped  pearl.  At  first  a 
jeweller's  technical  term,  it  came  later,  like  "rococo,"  to  be  used  to  describe 
the  kind  of  ornament  which  prevailed  in  design  of  the  Nineteenth  Century, 
after  the  disappearance  of  the  Classic.     (Litchfield.) 

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we  find  so-called  "  Gothic "  furniture  in  fashion  pub- 
lications, such  as  Ackermann's.  Most  of  this  was  very 
poor  stuff,  from  an  artistic  point  of  view.  There  was 
great  improvement  after  1835,  when  the  famous  archi- 
tect, A.  W.  Pugin,  published  his  Designs  in  Gothic 
Furniture. 

There  was  probably  no  period  so  dull  and  deathlike  in 
furniture  as  the  half  century  following  the  Empire.  The 
best  work  that  European  cabinet-makers  could  produce,  as 
shown  in  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851,  reveals  how  the 
mighty  had  fallen;,  and  the  English  display  was  very  pitiful. 
During  this  period  household  furniture  was  made  princi- 
pally of  mahogany,  and  rosewood,  and  the  dining-room  and 
sitting-room  pieces  were  heavy  and  generally  ugly.  Great 
sideboards  with  mirrors  let  into  the  back;  tomblike  desks; 
console-tables  in  the  form  of  a  heavy  lyre;  sofas  with  enor- 
mous  scrolls  and  with  horsehair  covering;  chairs  with  the 
sabre  leg;  Trafalgar  chairs;  enormous  bookcases;  pillar- 
and-claw  dining-tables ;  tripod  tables  with  marble  slabs ;  and 
French  bedsteads  with  heavy  foot  and  headboards  of  the 
same  size  are  the  favorite  forms  of  the  Victorian  age.  It 
seems  incredible  that  furniture  of  the  Chippendale,  Heppel- 
white  and  early  Sheraton  periods  should  have  been  turned 
out  of  old  homes  for  mahogany  worked  into  such  clumsy 
and  repulsive  forms  —  furniture  which  frequently  masquer- 
ades to-day  under  the  name  of  "  Colonial,"  and  which  ac- 
cords with  what  M.  Molinier  aptly  describes  as  "  the  horrible 
simplicity  of  prison  architecture." 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  was  no  distinctive  style  at  this 
period :  everything  was  a  jumble.  Describing  York  House, 
which  had  just  been  magnificently  furnished  in  1841,  a 
writer  says:  "The  furniture  generally  is  >[  no  particular 
style,  but,  on  the  whole,  there  is  to  be  found  a  mingling  of 
everything,  in  the  best  manner  of  the  best  epochs  of  taste." 

91 


Furniture 

One  change  was  noticeable,  however,  in  the  ottoman, 
couches  and  cattseuses:  "  Some  of  them,  in  place  of  plain  or 
carved  rosewood  or  mahogany,  are  ornamented  in  white 
enamel,  with  classic  subjects  in  bas-relief  of  perfect 
execution  "  a  critic  notes. 

Papier  mache  was  used  in  the  manufacture  of  many  arti- 
cles of  furniture,  and  was  very  popular  about  the  middle  of 
the  century.  It  had  long  been  known,  but  came  into  favor 
about  1825,  when  we  read: 

"  A  different  style  of  decoration  has  lately  been  intro- 
duced from  France  by  the  manufacture  of  a  composition  of 
paper  into  every  species  of  ornament,  whether  for  the  walls 
of  an  apartment  or  interior  decoration  in  general.  This 
species  of  manufacture  has  been  called  papier  mache,  which 
in  fact  is  nothing  more  than  paper  reduced  to  paste,  and 
then  forced  into  moulds  of  the  form  required.  In  this  in- 
stance we  now  excel  our  inventive  neighl)ors  in  the  execu- 
tior  of  the  same  article;  the  English  manufacture  being 
more  durable  as  well  as  more  imitative  of  real  carved  work, 
from  its  sharpness  of  edge  and  depth  in  cast.  But  with  re- 
spect to  the  elegance  and  phantasy  of  design  in  paper  decora- 
tion, the  French  offer  patterns  very  far  superior  to  all 
others." 

Reviewing  the  furniture  of  the  period,  Litchfield  says : 

"  Large  mirrors,  with  gilt  frames,  held  the  places  of 
honor  on  the  marble  chimney-piece,  and  on  the  console,  or 
pier-table,  which  was  also  of  gilt  stucco,  with  a  marble  slab. 
The  chiffonier,  with  its  shelves  and  scroll  supports  like  an 
elaborate  S,  and  a  mirror  at  the  back,  with  a  scrolled  frame, 
was  a  favorite  article  of  furniture. 

"  Carpets  were  badly  designed,  and  loud  and  vulgar  in 
9ol(/ring;  chairs,  on  account  of  the  shape  and  ornament  in 
vogue,  were  unfitted  for  their  purpose,  on  account-  of  the 
wood  being  cut  across  the  grain ;  the  fire-screen,  in  a  catyed 

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Styles  and  Schools 

rosewood  frame,  contained  the  caricature,  in  needlework,  of 
a  spaniel,  or  a  family  group  of  the  time,  ugly  enough  to  be 
in  keeping  with  its  surroundings. 

"  The  dining-room  was  sombre  and  heavy.  The  pedestal 
sideboard,  with  a  large  mirror  with  a  scrolled  frame  at  the 
back,  had  come  in;  the  chairs  were  massive  and  ugly  sur- 
vivals of  the  earlier  reproductions  of  the  Greek  patterns, 
and  though  solid  and  substantial,  the  effect  was  neither 
cheering  nor  refining. 

"  In  the  bedrooms  were  winged  wardrobes  and  chests  of 
drawers ;  dressing-tables  and  washstands,  with  scrolled  legs, 
nearly  always  in  mahogany;  the  old 
four-poster  had  given  way  to  the 
Arabian  or  French  bedstead,  and 
this  was  being  gradually  replaced  by 
the  iron  or  brass  bedsteads,  which 
came  in  after  the  *  Exhibition  of 
1 851'  had  shown  people  the  advan- 
tages of  the  lightness  and  cleanliness 
of  these  materials. 

"  In  a  word,  from  the  early  part 
of  the  present  century,  until  the 
impetus  given  to  Art  by  this  great  Exhibition  had  had  time 
to  take  effect,  the  general  taste  in  furnishing  houses  of  all 
but  a  very  few  persons  was  at  about  its  worst. 

"  In  other  countries  the  rococo  taste  had  also  taken  hold. 
France  maintained  a  higher  standard  than  England,  and 
such  figure  work  as  was  introduced  into  her  furniture,  was 
better  executed,  though  her  joinery  was  inferior.  In  Italy, 
old  models  of  the  Renaissance  still  served  as  examples  for 
reproduction,  but  the  ornament  was  more  carelessly  carved 
and  the  decoration  less  considered.  Ivory  inlaying  was 
largely  practised  in  Milan  and  Venice;  mosaics  of  marble 
were  specialties  of  Rome  and  of  Florence,  and  were  much 

93 


^ 


DKESSING-SOOM  COMMODE, 
1826 


Furniture 

used  in  the  decoration  of  cabinets ;  Venice  was  busy  manu- 
facturing carved  walnut-wood  furniture,  in  buffets,  cabinets, 
negro  page  boys  elaborately  painted  and  gilt;  and  carved 
mirror  frames,  the  chief  ornaments  of  which  were  cupids 
and  foliage/' 


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II 

CHESTS    AND    CUPBOARDS 

The   Chest;  the  Armoire;   the  Dressoir;  the  Court-Cupboard;  thi 
Sideboard;  the  Buffet;  the  Cabinet;  the  Commode;  the  Bureau. 

The  Chest 

THE  treasure  chest,  or  area,  was  an  important  piece 
of  furniture  with  the  Romans  and  usually  stood  in 
the  atrium,  or  hall,  of  the  Roman  house.  It  was 
often  fixed  to  the  floor,  or  against  the  wall,  and  was  under 
the  charge  of  the  doorkeeper  who  kept  the  key  and  paid  the 
housekeeping  expenses  from  it.  If  not  made  of  iron,  this 
strong-box  was  of  hard  wood,  strengthened  with  bands  and 
studs  of  bronze  or  iron.  Chests  of  this  description  have 
been  discovered  at  Pompeii. 

In  the  predatory  Dark  Ages,  the  chest  or  coffer  was  of 
supreme  importance.  All  classes  lived  an  uncertain  life  and 
people  were  frequently  compelled  to  move  and  to  travel; 
therefore,  the  chest,  coffer,  trunk,  bahut,  huche,  arche,  or 
strong-box  was  a  prime  necessity. 

The  earliest  chest,  or  travelling  trunk,  of  Western  Europe 
was  made  of  wicker  and  covered  with  an  ox-hide;  and 
sometimes  the  wicker  case  contained  an  inner  box  of 
wood.  In  the  course  of  time,  the  wicker  case  was  given 
up  and  the  wooden  box  alone  was  used,  and  this  was  ren- 
dered secure  with  a  lock  and  iron  bands.  As  the  chest  was 
exceedingly  heavy,  it  was  provided  with  iron  handles,  or 
rings,  through  which  a  pole  could  be  passed ;  and  the  chest, 
thus  slung  from  the  pole,  was  borne  on  men's  shoulders. 

95 


Furniture 

The  heaviest  chests  were  placed  on  strong  carts  drawn  by- 
oxen,  and  the  less  heavy  ones  on  the  backs  of  strong  sumpter 
horses  that  were  called  in  France  chevaux  hahutiers,  from 
the  bahut.  Solidity  was  the  first  qualification;  and  there- 
fore the  early  chests  were  ponderous,  massive,  and  covered 
with  iron  bands  or  straps ;  but  towards  the  end  of  the  Middle 
Ages  when  the  chest  was  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes,  it 
was  embellished  with  ornaments.  The  arched  top  was 
found  inconvenient  when  the  chest  became  a  piece  of  furni- 
ture rather  than  a  travelling-box.  The  ordinary  chest  of 
this  period  was  a  long  coffer  that  stood  on  four  short,  stout 
feet,  or  upon  the  end  pieces  prolonged  below  the  front  and 
back.  The  chest  proper  was  therefore  raised  a  little  above 
the  floor.  The  wood  was  painted,  carved  or  gilded ;  covered 
with  leather,  or  ornamented  canvas ;  and  made  strong  with 
wrought  iron  bands  that  were  both  decorative  and  useful. 

Such  chests  were  in  constant  use  for  an  infinite  variety 
of  purposes.  They  formed  seats  on  which  the  merchants 
sat  and  sold  their  wares  and  paid  and  received  their  monies. 
In  the  illuminations  of  some  manuscripts  such  chests  are 
employed  for  the  musicians  to  sit  upon  while  they  play 
their  instruments  to  the  guests  in  the  hall,  or  ladies,  while 
they  spend  their  long,  solitary  hours  working  tapestry  or 
embroidering.  A  miser  also  is  seen  to  sleep  upon  his  chest 
which  contains  all  his  worldly  wealth.  In  fact,  they  formed 
an  indispensable  article  of  furniture  in  all  the  chief  rooms 
of  the  Mediaeval  house,  serving,  like  modern  safes,  to  keep 
gold  and  silver  articles,  jewellery,  papers,  books,  deeds, 
parchments,  wearing  apparel  of  all  kinds,  as  well  as  for  the 
hangings  of  the  rooms  when  not  in  use.  Chests  were  often  so 
constructed  that  they  could  also  be  used  for  couches  and  beds. 

*'  In  the  Thirteenth  Century,  the  ornamental  iron-work 
began  to  be  supplemented  by  simple  carving  on  the  wood 
itself,  and  the  old  system  of  covering  every  joint  and  seam 

96 


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Plate  XLV 

Carved  Oak  Chest.     Early  French  Renaissance  (about  1500) 

English  Transitional  Chest  (about  1500) 

Metropolitan  Museum 


Chests  and  Cupboards 

with  an  iron  band,  so  that  the  whole  of  each  side  presented 
a  nearly  plain  surface,  began  to  give  place  to  a  more  sci- 
entific and  less  primitive  mode  of  construction,  viz.,  by  form- 
ing the  sides,  ends,  and  flat  lid  into  panels,  and  in  setting 
these  into  a  stout  framework  of  stiles  and  rails.  A  change 
in  construction  led  necessarily  to  a  change  also  in  the  method 
of  ornamentation,  and  the  decoration  which  had  formerly 
been  confined  to  the  terminations  of  the  iron  bands,  painted 
leather  or  canvas  coverings,  was  now  followed  by  mouldings 
wrought  on  the  angles  of  the  framework,  and  all  kinds  of 
beading  and  incised  carving. 

"  In  the  Middle  Ages,  the  chest-makers  formed  such  an 
important  body  of  artificial  workmen  that  they  divided 
themselves  in  most  of  the  principal  towns  from  the  guilds  of 
carpenters  and  formed  a  special  guild  of  their  own.  Such 
guilds  were  highly  favored  and  became  powerful,  their 
members  attaining  to  the  very  highest  skill,  and  besides  the 
business  of  chest-making,  they  worked  in  ebony,  ivory,  and 
all  kinds  of  precious  woods,  as  well  as  in  horn  and  shell ;  in 
fact  they  ranked  next  to  the  gold  and  silversmiths  amongst 
the  trade  guilds  of  the  period.  So  much  were  the  trunks, 
bins  and  chests  in  use  as  articles  of  furniture  among  all 
classes  that  they  found  it  necessary  to  make  supplementary 
laws  in  order  to  prevent  them  from  turning  out  faulty 
work."  ^ 

The  chest  appears  in  old  wills  and  inventories  as  hyst, 
kyste,  kist,  kyrst,  kiste,  chist,  chiste,  cheste,  cheist,  ark,  cof- 
fer, almery,  press  and  casket.  It  is  often  described  as 
"  bound  with  yren,"  a  ''  bound  kiste,"  a  "  spruce  kist " 
(meaning  a  fir  chest)  and  a  "Flanders,"  or  "Flemish," 
chest.  The  chest  of  the  Low  Countries  was  always  a  prized 
possession,  not  only  in  France  and  England,  but  in  Spain 
and  Portugal. 

1  Charles  Clement  Hodges. 

97 


Furniture 

One  of  the  earliest,  finest  and  largest  carved  Flemish 
chests  in  existence  is  preserved  in  the  vestry  of  Alnwick 
Church  in  England : 

"  The  front  has  the  usual  division  of  three  compartments, 
two  uprights  and  a  centre  piece.  The  uprights  are  each 
divided  into  four  panels,  the  three  uppermost  of  which  on 
either  side  are  carved  with  dragon-like  monsters,  some  with 
wings  and  some  without.  All  their  tails  run  off  into  several 
branches  bearing  beautifully  wrought  leaves  of  various 
kinds,  conspicuous  among  which  is  the  trefoil  in  the 
uppermost  right-hand  panel.  The  lower  panels  are  occupied 
with  scrolls  bearing  leaves  of  the  strawberry  type.  The 
centre  is  divided  vertically  into  three,  the  upper  division 
being  divided  into  three  again  by  the  lock-plate.  On  either 
side  of  this  a  chase  is  represented,  the  animals  facing 
towards  the  lock.  The  lower  compartments  each  contain 
two  dragons,  ending  in  foliated  branches  and  with  foliage 
between  them.  The  two  lower  dragons  have  human  heads 
and  wear  jester's  caps.  The  character  of  the  foliage  and 
the  entire  absence  of  any  architectural  features  in  the  design 
of  this  chest,  place  it  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  Fourteenth 
Century. 

"  Many  ancient  chests  are  still  to  be  found  in  the  chapter- 
houses and  vestries  of  ancient  churches,  where  they  were 
receptacles  for  vestments,  hangings  for  festival  decorations 
and  the  preservation  of  archives,  deeds,  etc.  A  good  ex- 
ample of  the  Thirteenth  Century  was  formed  of  oak  planks, 
two  inches  thick.  The  uprights  clamping  the  sides  are  un- 
usually broad,  exceeding  the  intervening  space.  Its  only 
decoration  is  constructive,  consisting  of  iron  straps  one  and 
three-quarter  inches  wide  and  one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick. 
These  are  admirably  distributed  for  gaining  the  greatest 
possible  result,  both  from  a  constructive  and  decorative 
point  of  view,  with  the  least  amount  of  material.     The  two 

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Chests  and  Cupboards 


bands  crossing  the  lid  also  descend  the  back  and  form  the 
hinges.  All  the  bands  terminate  in  bi foliations,  and  the  tip 
of  each  bifoliation  is  secured  with  a  mushroom-headed  nail. 
The  front  is  distinguished  by  two  bands  crossed  which  form 
the  heraldic  cross  moline,  but  it  is  here  no  doubt  decorative. 
The  ends  are  furnished  with  chains  and  rings,  which  could 
be  raised  above  the  lid  for  slinging  the  chest  on  a  pole."  ^ 

The  most  famous  of  all  Fourteenth  Century  chests  is  in 
the  Cluny  Museum  and  is  represented  on  Plate  I.  (see 
page  9).  About  this  time  chests  were  decorated  with  the 
black  and  white  inlay  in  geometrical  designs  that  was  known 
as  certosino  chiefly  made  in  Italy  and  Portugal.  Pictures 
in  colored  woods  were  often  called  tarsia  (see  page  11). 

It  was  in  the  beginning  of  the  Fourteenth  Century  that 
the  richly  carved  chests  were  introduced ;  for  plain  chests  and 
iron-bound  chests  were  not  in  accord  with  the  rich  furniture 
and  panelled  walls  with  which  the  interiors  were  now 
adorned. 

^^ Coffers  and  chests  of  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Cen- 
turies were  in  most  instances  of  fine  proportions,  ingenious 
in  their  interior  arrangements  and  characterized  by  rich 
carving  that  reveals  the  various  developments  of  Gothic 
tracery.  The  locks  and  keys  were  often  most  intricate  in 
design  and  artistic  in  workmanship. 

The  panels  of  the  chests  were  much  decorated  with  the 
favorite  linen-fold  design. 

In  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries,  the  so-called 
"  Tilting  Coffers  "  were  produced.  Their  dates  are  deter- 
mined by  means  of  the  style  of  armor  in  which  the  figures 
ornamenting  the  panels  are  dressed.  Architectural  motives 
are  carved  on  their  frames  and  knightly  contests  are  repre- 
sented on  their  front  panels.  A  famous  example  from  the 
Cluny  Museum  appears  on  Plate  II.  (see  page  10).  South 
*  Charles  Clement  Hodges. 

99 


Furniture 

Kensington  Museum  owns  a  small  one  upon  which  two 
knights  are  tilting  furiously  and  one  in  the  Ypres  Cathedral 
shows  St.  George  fighting  the  Dragon. 

In  France,  the  chest  with  the  rounded  top  was  called 
hahut  and  that  with  the  flat  top,  huche.  The  chest  was  the 
most  important  piece  of  furniture  in  the  house,  and  in  it 
valuables  were  kept.  In  fact,  the  kings  and  princes  of  the 
Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries  gave  the  name  Garde- 
huche  to  the  officer  in  charge  of  their  table-silver,  or,  as  we 
should  call  it,  the  silver-chest.  In  this,  the  French  followed 
the  precedent  of  the  old  Romans. 

The  huchiers  were  a  guild  apart  from  the  carpenters  and 
made  all  the  fine  woodwork  of  the  house  —  such  as  the  doors 
and  window- frames.  Mattres-Huchiers-Menuisiers  was  the 
title  Mazarin  gave  them  in  1645. 

A  favorite  way  of  decorating  chests  and  coffers  in  Italy 
in  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries  was  known  as 
gesso  duro.  This  was  a  preparation  of  whiting  mixed  with 
size  or  glue  and  spread  thinly  and  evenly  over  the  surface 
of  carved  wood  or  modelled  ornaments.  The  raised  orna- 
ments were  then  painted  and  gilded.  Gesso  was  also  much 
used  as  a  decoration  for  the  Spanish  chests  of  the  Fifteenth 
Century,  which  are  now  so  rare. 

The  large  chests  used  in  Spain  were  similar  to  those  of 
Italy  and  were  decorated  with  Gothic  or  Renaissance  carv- 
ing like  the  choir-stalls  and  ornamented  with  iron-work.  In 
the  province  of  Catalufia,  they  were  inlaid  with  ivory  in 
imitation  of  Florentine  and  Milanese  work. 

Late  in  the  Fifteenth  and  during  the  Sixteenth  Century, 
Italy  produced  most  elaborate  and  sumptuous  coffers;  and 
upon  the  marriage  coffer,  or  cassone,  both  artists  and  arti- 
sans bestowed  their  best  energies.  The  bride's  dower  was 
carried  to  the  bridegroom's  house  in  the  cassone,  which 
varied  in  sumptuousness  according  to  the  wealth  of  the 

100 


n 


n 

n 


r^ 


13 

w 

X 
r 
<: 


S   S 


2. 

O 
o 


Chests  and  Cupboards 

family.  Some  of  the  chests  were  of  carved  wood;  some 
were  inlaid;  some  were  covered  with  velvet  ornamented 
with  richly  gilt  metal-work;  the  handsomest  of  all  were 
painted  by  such  celebrated  artists  as  Andrea  del  Sarto.  In 
fact,  some  of  the  most  beautiful  Italian  pictures  that  have 
come  down  to  the  present  day  were  originally  panels  for 
marriage-chests.  Gozzoli's  Rape  of  Helen  in  the  National 
Gallery,  London,  is  one  of  these. 

The  marriage-chest  sometimes  bore  the  inscription  "  Quae 
nupta  ad  cerum  tulit  maritumJ' 

"  It  was  in  such  a  marriage-chest  that  the  beautiful 
Genevra  dei  Benci,  whose  portrait  exists  in  the  fresco  by 
Ghirlandaio  in  Sta.  Maria  Novella,  hid  while  playing  hide 
and  seek  the  evening  before  her  marriage.  The  cassone  was 
of  carved  wood  and  the  heavy  lid  closed  upon  her,  snapping 
the  lock  fast.  All  search  for  her  was  in  vain,  and  the  old 
tale  says  that  her  fair  fame  suffered  at  the  hands  of  ma- 
licious women,  jealous  of  her  exceeding  beauty.  Years 
afterwards,  when  the  chest  was  forced  open,  the  remains  of 
the  lovely  Genevra  were  found,  still,  it  is  said,  preserving 
traces  of  beauty,  and  with  the  peculiar  scent  she  used  still 
lingering  about  her  long,  fair  hair;  in  her  right  hand  she 
grasped  the  jewel  her  bridegroom  had  given  her  to  fasten 
the  front  of  her  gown.  In  Florence  the  bella  Genevra  is 
still  talked  about  among  the  common  people  as  the  ideal  type 
of  woman's  beauty."  * 

A  fine  example  of  Venetian  work  of  the  Sixteenth  Cen- 
tury is  the  marriage-chest  from  the  Cluny  Museum,  on 
Plate  XLVI.  The  front  and  sides  are  beautifully  carved 
with  mythological  and  Biblical  subjects  relating  to  marriage, 
and  ornamented  with  chimerical  figures,  mascarons  and 
shields  in  high  relief.  Trophies  and  garlands  adorn  the 
frieze,  and  at  the  corners  are  large  female  figures  with  ex- 

1  J.  Ross. 
lOI 


Furniture 

tended  wings.  In  the  centre  is  the  richly"  framed  shield. 
The  human  forms  are  carved  with  the  utmost  grace  and 
delicacy.  Another  marriage-chest  appears  on  Plate  XLVII. 
This  is  of  Italian  workmanship  and  is  preserved  in  the 
Louvre. 

Compare  these  with  the  chest  on  Plate  XL  of  the  same 
period  with  its  graceful  female  figures  supporting  the  cen- 
tral shield  and  terminating  in  leafy  scrolls  that  frame  chi- 
merical beasts  and  birds.  This  fine  piece  of  the  Italian 
Renaissance  is  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York. 

Cuir  bonilli  was  also  much  used  as  a  covering  for  chests 
and  coffers  in  the  Fifteenth  and  Sixteenth  Centuries  in  place 
of  carving.  The  leather  was  first  prepared  by  being  steeped 
in  melted  wax  and  essential  oils  or  spirits,  and  boiled ;  and 
after  the  leather  was  thus  prepared,  it  was  delicately  em- 
bossed and  incised  and  painted  and  gilded.  Sometimes,  too, 
the  leather  was  cut  away  and  pieces  of  velvet  or  other  rich 
materials  were  laid  underneath  the  leather  in  the  spaces,  for 
the  sake  of  the  bright  effect.  Of  course,  the  carver  made 
use  of  the  leather-straps  for  a  motive.  The  cuir,  variously 
cut  and  plaited,  or  interlaced,  was  a  decoration  that  found 
particular  favor  with  the  Flemish.  The  strip  of  leather 
sometimes  flat  and  sometimes  rolled,  was  often  accom- 
panied by  birds,  flowers,  animals  and  fruits.  (See  Plate 
XLVIII.) 

The  coffer,  or  chest,  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  was  as  a 
rule  made  with  a  flat  top.  The  wood  was  oak,  walnut,  or 
lime.  It  had  been  the  principle  in  decoration  to  divide  the 
anterior  into  a  certain  number  of  arches ;  in  the  second  half 
of  the  Sixteenth  Century  panels  took  their  place  divided 
from  one  another  by  caryatides.  Some  coffers  were  made 
with  the  swelling  front  —  especially  those  of  small  size  — 
and  decorated  with  marquetry  and  fine  inlay  work  of  white 
paste  "  a  la  moresqiie/'  a  style  of  decoration  that  was  used 

102 


> 

H 
W 

X 


Chests  and  Cupboards 


also  for  the  dressoirs,  armoires  and  chairs  by  the  huchiers 
of  Lyons. 

In  the  Sixteenth  Century  the  chest  in  the  Low  Countries 
was  decorated  with  panels  carved  with  subjects  from  the 
Bible,  Greek  myths,  allegorical  subjects,  architectural  mo- 
tives, arabesques,  pilaf^'ers  in  the  form  of  terms,  mascarons, 
fluted  columns  and  -.aiches  filled  with  figures.  Flemish 
chests  were  in  great  demand  in  France,  England  and  across 
the  Pyrenees. 

The  chest  was  always  found  in  the  Dutch  home  in  the 
Seventeenth  Century.  One  or  two  large  chests  invariably 
stood  in  each  bedroom  and  in  these  both  linen  and  clothing 
were  kept.  Many  Dutch  chests  were  made  of  lignum- vitae 
or  sacredaan  fastened  with  brass  or  silver  locks  and  hinges. 
The  Dutch  chest  was  generally  neatly  lined  with  linen.  One 
reason  that  the  yellow  sacredaan  was  a  favorite  wood  for 
chests  was  because  its  sweet,  strong  odor  was  hateful  to 
moths. 

The  word  coffre  was  also  used  in  France  to  describe  the 
wooden  case,  ordinarily  covered  with  ornamental  leather, 
fastened  with  large  silver-headed  nails,  and  also  those  made 
of  various  kinds  of  wood  variously  decorated.  Coffres  de 
Chypre  were  ornamented  with  mother-of-pearl  inlay  and 
were  often  very  rich;  those  termed  a  la  neapolitaine  were 
of  ivory  marquetry  on  a  background  of  walnut.  Those  of 
Flanders  were,  as  a  rule,  strengthened  with  metal  bands,  or 
ornaments. 

The  smaller  chests,  coffers  and  caskets  varied  much  in 
shape  and  material  and  were  made  in  gold,  silver,  ivory, 
mother-of-pearl,  and  were  variously  carved,  ornamented 
with  precious  stones,  or  chased,  or  enamelled  on  copper. 
They  were  used  for  locking  up  jewels  and  other  small  valu- 
ables. Handsome  dressing-boxes  were  also  made  in  this 
form. 

103 


Furniture 

For  the  sake  of  greater  convenience,  the  chest  was  placed 
on  a  frame  that  rested  on  short,  square  legs,  or  flattened  ball 
feet.  The  next  development  consisted  of  one  long  drawer, 
or  two  short  drawers,  below  the  chest  proper.  As  more 
drawers  were  added  to  the  simple  box  or  trunk,  the  original 
chest  became  extended  into  a  chest-of -drawers,  a  nest-of- 
drawers,  a  case-of -drawers,  a  chest-with-drawers,  a  press,  a 
cupboard-press,  a  chest-upon-chest.  The  simple  chest  is, 
therefore,  the  parent  of  many  pieces  of  furniture,  and  often 
appears  almost  in  its  original  form  in  unexpected  places. 
Chippendale's  clothes-presses  are  made,  for  example,  on  the 
old  model. 

"  The  clothes-presses  which  Chippendale  gave  us  are 
somewhat  reminiscent  in  outline  of  the  old  Spanish  dower- 
chests  ;  they  were  used  to  store  clothes,  linen,  curtains,  and 
so  on;  but  judging  by  their  rarity,  we  may  safely  assume 
that  they  did  not  come  into  great  favor.  They  rested  on 
deep  feet  or  short  legs,  approximately  one  third  of  the  whole 
design  in  pitch.  The  carcase  would  be  sometimes  square, 
at  other  times  hombe  in  form,  but  it  seldom  displays  the 
amount  of  garnishment  we  should  expect  to  find  on  it  after 
a  perusal  of  Chippendale's  book  of  designs.  The  feet  were 
linked  together  by  a  narrow  frame,  and  upon  this  the  body 
of  the  piece  reposed."  ^ 

The  Armoire 

At  first  the  armoire  was  a  series  of  shelves  built  into  the 
wall  and  closed  by  wooden  shutters  or  wings.  At  a  later 
period  when  the  piece  became  separate  and  movable  it  was 
merely  a  chest-upon-chest,  both  opening  in  front  by  means 
of  doors  or  wings.  Just  as  the  chest,  placed  on  a  stand, 
formed  the  cabinet,  so  one  chest  placed  upon  another  formed 

1  Wheeler. 
104 


Plate  XLIX 
Armoire.  Lyonnais.     End  of  Sixteenth  Century 


Chests  and  Cupboards 


the  armoire.  In  the  early  period  of  their  existence  the  dif- 
ference between  the  cabinet  and  armoire  was  not  definitely 
fixed,  and  indeed,  cabinet,  armoire  and  buffet  are  often 
synonymous.  It  is  not  until  the  Seventeenth  Century  that 
these  pieces  first  become  perfectly  distinct.  The  armoire 
seems  to  have  been  little  used  in  civil  life  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  but  was  greatly  employed  in  the  monastic  and  religious 
houses.  In  the  cloisters,  the  armarium  was  often  turned 
into  a  cupboard  for  books;  and  in  the  sacristy  of  the 
churches  there  was  always  a  large  or  small  armoire,  fixed 
or  movable,  in  which  the  prayer-books,  missals,  sacred  ves- 
sels and  holy-oil  were  kept.  Some  of  these  armoire s  are 
still  in  existence.  A  notable  one  of  the  Thirteenth  Century 
is  preserved  in  the  upper  sacristy  of  the  Bayeux  Cathedral. 

It  is  a  huge,  double-storied  press  of  oak,  both  floors 
being  divided  into  seven  compartments.  Each  of  these  is 
closed  by  a  shutter,  working  on  strap  hinges,  the  ends  of 
which  terminate  in  fleur-de-lis.  The  unequal  number  of 
doors  opening  alternately  dos  a  dos  presents  one  of  those 
curious  features  of  irregularity  so  frequently  introduced 
by  the  mediaeval  architect.  With  the  exception  of  some 
simple  finials  the  armoire  is  destitute  of  carving,  but  it  has 
been  painted  with  monkish  subjects  bordered  with  patterns 
in  black,  white  and  red,  the  greater  part  of  which  have  now 
disappeared. 

Armoires  of  this  early  period  are  much  scarcer  than  cof- 
fers and  chests,  but  there  is  another  splendid  specimen  of 
this  same  period  owned  by  the  Cathedral  of  Noyon.  The 
doors  of  this  are  painted  within  and  without. 

A  fine  armoire  of  the  perpendicular  style  is  preserved  in 
the  vestry  of  York  Minster. 

As  the  art  of  the  cabinet-maker  progressed,  the  armoire 
became  one  of  those  pieces  on  which  much  decorative  work 
was  lavished;    and,  instead  of  the  panels  being  painted, 

105 


Furniture 

they  were  now  either  carved  or  received  the  characteristic 
decoration  of  the  period  —  the  favorite  Hnen-fold.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  as  the  hahut  gradually 
disappeared  as  a  piece  of  furniture,  the  ar moire  took  its 
place;  therefore,  it  was  made  in  all  sizes  and  forms  and  deco- 
rated in  all  styles  as  they  arose. 

The  splendid  examples  of  armoires  in  two  parts,  some- 
times described  as  cabinets  a  deux  corps,  enrich  many  mu- 
seums and  private  collections.  It  is  not  generally  known 
that  these  armoires  were  frequently  lined  with  rich  silk  or 
brocade,  fastened  down  with  small  nails,  which  set  off  the 
beautiful  objects  kept  behind  the  doors. 

There  are  a  few  fine  specimens  of  armoires  in  the 
Louvre;  but  Cluny  owns  a  great  number  of  superbly  carved 
examples  of  this  now  rare  type  of  furniture.^ 

It  has  been  said  that  the  armoire  of  the  Ile-de-France 
was  generally  higher  than  it  was  long,  and  that  those  made 
in  Burgundy  and  the  Midi  were  characterized  by  their 
greater  width.  The  armoires  of  the  Ile-de-France  are  also 
to  be  recognized  by  their  architectural  effect.  The  slender 
upper  part  develops  into  a  pyramid.  It  has  two  doors  in  the 
lower  part  and  two  doors  in  the  upper  part,  the  latter  flanked 
by  small  columns  surrounded  by  vine  or  laurel  leaves.  To 
Normandy,  M.  Molinier  attributes  furniture  in  which  the 
architecture  and  sculpture  remain  characteristic  of  the  Ile- 
de-France  but  which  is  enriched  with  incrustations  of  ebony, 
generally  in  relief ;  and  he  cites  a  very  fine  armoire  that  be- 
longed to  the  Emile  Gavet  Collection,  which  he  thinks  marks 
the  period  when  the  ebeniste  succeeded  to  the  huchier  in 
making  furniture. 

The  model  of  the  Ile-de-France  was  imitated  elsewhere, 
particularly  in  Lyons,  where  such  large  armoires  a  deux 
corps  were  made  that  they  were  frequently  called  buffets. 
One  of  Lyonnais  workmanship  on  Plate  XLIX.  follows  the 

io6 


Plate  L 

Seventeenth  Century  Kas,  or  Armoire,  from  South  Germany 
Metropolitan  Museum 


c  V  ,    ;  f 


Chests  and  Cupboards 

traditions  of  the  Ile-de-France  in  its  form  and  ornamenta- 
tion. The  panels  represent  the  Annunciation,  the  Nativity 
and  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi. 

In  Languedoc,  the  huchiers  were  under  the  influence 
both  the  Ile-de-France  and  Burgundy;  in  other  words,  the 
style  created  by  Jean  Goujon  and  Du  Cerceau  was  united 
in  a  sort  of  fashion  by  Hugues  Sambin.  The  Burgundians 
inspired  the  artists  of  the  Midi;  —  and  so,  upon  this  form 
of  furniture,  as  in  so  many  others,  the  sign  and  seal  of 
various  provinces  and  artists  have  been  set. 

Some  of  Boulle's  most  famous  pieces  were  armoires;  the 
Duke  of  Hamilton  owned  two  magnificent  specimens  which 
were  companion  pieces ;  and  the  example  in  the  Jones  Col- 
lection, South  Kensington  Museum,  made  by  Boulle  for 
Louis  XIV.  on  a  model  by  Berain,  is  valued  at  £10,000. 

Some  armoires  of  the  Louis  XV.  period  are  beautifully 
decorated  with  bronze  ornamentation,  the  broad  panels  and 
doors  relieved  by  flowers,  foliage  and  groups  of  children 
or  monkeys  swinging  or  playing  musical  instruments. 

The  armoire  of  this  period  merges  into  the  wardrobe  with 
its  two  great  doors  behind  which  are  shelves,  drawers,  or 
hooks  for  garments  to  hang  upon. 

In  the  Low  Countries  and  in  Germany,  the  armoire  was 
known  as  the  kas,  or  kast,  two  examples  of  which  appear  on 
Plates. 

The  great  Dutch  kas  was  very  broad  and  very  tall.  It 
was  made  of  ebony,  oak,  or  walnut,  and  stood  on  four  heavy, 
round  balls,  or  feet,  that  were  often  called  "  knots."  These 
were  sometimes  repeated  on  the  top  of  the  cupboard  and 
called  "  guardians  of  the  porcelain  ornaments."  The  kas 
stood  in  nearly  every  room  of  the  old  Dutch  house,  —  in 
the  office,  in  the  kitchen  and  in  the  living-room,  as  well 
as  in  the  bedrooms.  The  kas  was  richly  carved  or  inlaid, 
and  made  of  both  ordinary  and  rare  woods.    It  was  very 

107 


Furniture 

heavy,  architectural,  and  ornamental;  and  useful  for  pre- 
serving the  choice  articles  of  which  the  Dutch  owned  so 
many. 

Plate  L.  shows  the  type  of  the  great  kas.  It  is  nothing 
but  a  huge  wardrobe  with  drawers  or  shelves  behind  the 
two  big  doors,  which,  in  the  example  before  us,  are  fur- 
nished with  handsome  locks.  Beneath  these  are  two 
drawers.  This  piece  of  furniture  stands  on  six  round,  flat- 
tened, ball  feet  or  "  knots,"  and  is  handsomely  decorated 
with  ornaments  recalling  the  style  of  Du  Cerceau  and  De 
Vries.  It  is  owned  by  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New^ 
York.  Plate  LI.,  also  owned  by  the  Metropolitan  Museum, 
is  similar  in  general  form. 

Upon  the  top  of  the  great  kas  invariably  stood  handsome 
vases  and  jars  of  porcelain  or  earthenware.  Some  hasten 
were  valued  at  enormous  prices :  a  sacredaan  cupboard,  or 
a  nutwood  cupboard,  or  one  made  of  different  woods,  or 
inlaid  with  mother-of-pearl,  would  cost  as  much  as  a  thou- 
sand florins.  Kas,  of  course,  means  case,  which  brings  us 
back  again  to  the  case-of -drawers. 

To  the  late  Seventeenth  Century  (about  1690)  belongs 
the  case-of -drawers  popularly  known  as  the  **  high-boy." 
(French  haut-bois.)  At  first,  the  tall  chest  of  drawers  stood 
on  a  frame,  composed  of  six  spindle-shaped  legs  connected 
by  stretchers  placed  close  to  the  floor.  Sometimes  the 
spindle-legs  also  terminated  in  lar^e  balls.  Three  drawers 
were,  as  a  rule,  placed  in  the  frame,  while  the  chest  con- 
tained three  long  drawers  surmounted  by  two  or  three  short 
ones  below  the  slab.  As  time  went  on,  the  "  high-boy  "  was 
placed  on  a  low  case-of-drawers  that  was  supported  on 
cabriole  legs.  The  style  came  in  about  the  time  that  lacquer 
was  popular  and  both  "  high  boy  "  and  "  low-boy  "  were 
made  of  lacquer  or  "painted  and  japanned."  On  Plate 
XXIV.  a  "  high-boy  "  is  shown  and  on  Plate  LII.  a  "  low- 

108 


Plate  LI 

Seventeenth  Century  Kas,  or  Jrmoire,  Dutch 
Metropolitan  Museum 


Chests  and  Cupboards 


boy."  Both  examples  are  in  the  MetropoHtan  Museum  and 
both  have  the  old  hoof -foot. 

The  mahogany  "  high-boy,"  decorated  with  brass  escutch- 
eons and  key-plates  and  surmounted  by  a  scroll  pediment 
between  the  break  of  which  a  china  ornament  was  often 
placed,  was  a  favorite  piece  of  bedroom  furniture  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century.  Some  of  these  had  ornamental  tops, 
carved  like  the  bookcases  of  the  day  (see  Frontispiece). 

The  low  case-of -drawers,  called  **  low-boy,"  was  very 
similar  in  form  to  the  commode.  The  '*  bureau  "  of  Marie 
de'  Medici  (see  Plate  LXVII.)  shows  remarkable  likeness  to 
it  also.  It  was  a  dressing-table  with  drawers  and  was 
always  used  for  this  purpose.  Sometimes  the  lower 
part  of  a  high-boy  was  also  used  as  a  dressing-table;  but 
this  generally  has  but  one  row  of  drawers,  while  the  "  low- 
boy "  proper  is  supplied  with  two  rows.  Below  the  central 
drawer  in  the  top  row  a  fan-shaped  ornament  is  frequently 
carved.  Like  the  **  high-boy,"  the  earliest  examples  of  the 
"  low-boy "  are  furnished  with  drop-handles,  especially 
those  made  of  mahogany,  exhibit  fine  brass-handles  and 
wing-shaped  key-plates. 

As  the  century  advanced,  the  "  high-boy  "  became  more 
decorative.  A  fan  or  other  ornament  was  carved  on  the 
top  drawer,  and  the  top  was  decorated  with  a  swan- 
necked  pediment,  in  the  centre  of  which  a  slender  vase  was 
carved.  Another  favorite  way  of  ornamenting  the  top  of 
the  "  high-boy  "  was  by  placing  on  it  three  steps  of  ma- 
hogany, on  which  china  was  arranged.  Handsome  brass 
handles  and  key-plate  brightened  the  sombre  wood  (see 
Plate  LIII.). 

These  useful  pieces  of  furniture,  particularly  popular  in 
America,  were  made  of  cherry,  pine  and  other  cheap  woods 
and  then  stained,  as  well  as  of  mahogany. 

Instead  of  the  case-of -drawers  being  on  a  stand  some- 

109 


Furniture 

times  it  was  placed  on  a  chest-of -drawers.  It  then  becomes 
a  chest-upon-chest  or  a  double  case-of-drawers.  We  find 
the  double  chest,  or  "  high-boy,"  among  the  designs  of 
Chippendale,  who  treats  it  much  as  the  wardrobe,  which 
was  squarely  built,  or  had  a  square  top  that  rested  upon  a 
serpentine,  or  hombe,  set  of  drawers.  As  a  rule,  the  Chip- 
pendale high-boy  has  a  slide  fitted  into  the  carcase,  which 
is  intended,  when  pulled  out,  to  serve  as  a  table  for  brush- 
ing and  folding  clothes  before  they  are  placed  in  the 
drawers.     This  slide  is  often  mistaken  for  a  writing-slab. 


The  Dressoir 

The  dressoir,  chest  and  bed  were  the  three  indispensable 
pieces  of  furniture  in  the  Middle  Ages;  they  are  found 
alike  in  princely  homes  and  in  the  dwellings 
of  the  middle-class  people.  The  dressoir  is 
often  wrongly  called  a  credence,  of  which  it 
was  a  development. 

The    Italian    word    is    creance,    meaning 

dressoir;   and  credenza  described  in  Italy  in 

the  Sixteenth  Century  as  a  porcelain  or  metal 

table  service,  was,  by  extension,  used  to  des- 

FiFTEENTH CEN-   ignate  the  piece  of  furniture  on  which  it  was 

exhibited. 

The  word  credence  had,  however,  passed  into  currency 
in  other  countries  to  describe  a  shallow  cupboard  supported 
on  legs,  and  sometimes  rendered  still  more  useful  by  means 
of  a  shelf.  The  credence  was  placed  near  the  large  table 
at  meal-times,  covered  with  a  cloth,  and  used  as  a  serving- 
table,  or  sideboard. 

On  Plate  VIII.  we  have  the  early  type.  This  is  really 
nothing  but  a  chest  placed  on  legs  with  doors  cut  in  the 
front  panels;  and  this  is  the  primitive  sideboard.     It  is  a 

no 


FRENCH  DRESSOIR 
FIFTE 
TURY 


Plate  LII 

Low-boy,  Lacquered 
Metropolitan  Museum 


Chests  and  Cupboards 

handsome  piece  for  its  day  with  its  carving  of  the 
ever-pleasing  grape-and-leaf  design  which  decorates  the 
panels  and  the  linen  fold  that  adorns  the  doors.  This 
piece  is  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York.  More 
developed  pieces  appear  on  Plates  LIV.  and  LV. 

By  the  Fifteenth  Century  it  had  become  of  greater  im- 
portance, was  delicately  carved  and  frequently  adorned  with 
a  canopy  or  dais.  Upon  its  tier  of  shelves,  pieces  of  hand- 
some and  massive  silver  (and  sometimes  gold)  were  dis- 
played. At  this  date,  the  credence  was  placed  against  the 
wall  and  never  moved.  It  was  now  a  piece  of  furniture 
intended  as  much  for  show  as  utility.  In  short,  the  cre- 
dence had  become  a  dressoir,  for  the  dressoir  makes  its 
appearance  at  the  beginning  of  the  Fifteenth  Century.  On 
the  shelves  the  handsome  plate  was  displayed;  and  in  the 
drawers  were  kept  the  delicacies  and  the  linen  cloths  that 
were  placed  on  the  shelves  during  meals.  From  its  advent, 
the  dressoir  was  a  luxurious  piece  of  furniture,  the  fine 
proportions  of  which  lent  themselves  to  delicate  and  ornate 
carving. 

In  the  castles  the  dressoirs  were  surmounted  by  shelves, 
the  number  of  which  was  regulated  by  the  rank  of  the 
owner;  and  on  these  shelves,  which  were  covered  with 
embroidered  cloths,  were  exhibited  handsome  vessels  of 
silver  and  gold,  so  massive  and  so  abundant  in  the  Fifteenth 
Century. 

The  form  and  arrangement  of  the  dressoir,  or  dressoir- 
buffet  that  are  to  be  seen  in  the  miniatures  of  the  illumin- 
ated manuscripts  of  the  Middle  Ages  are  very  simple.  It 
is  little  more  than  a  chest  supported  on  legs  and  supplied 
with  doors  having  iron  hinges.  As  luxury  advanced,  the 
dressoirs  of  the  Fourteenth  Century  became  more  artistic 
in  character;  and  the  legs  were  grooved  and  carved  with 
foliage  and  the  doors  were  carved  with  tracery  like  the 

III 


Furniture 

church  windows.  The  iron-work  of  the  locks  and  hinges 
was  handsomely  pierced  and  was  set  off  by  a  background 
of  red  cloth.  Above  the  shelves  there  rose  a  kind  of 
baldachin,  or  dais,  which,  towards  the  end  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  was  carved  in  the  Flamboyant  Style.  The  decora- 
tions of  the  panels  were  usually  religious  in  subject;  but 
the  principal  motive  of  the  decoration  of  these  dressoirs 
was  the  fleur-de-lis,  the  national  emblem  of  France,  which 
the  menuisiers-huchiers  always  knew  how  to  use  in  the  most 
elegant  manner  by  arranging  it  in  the  centre  of  the  Gothic 
arches.  The  background  of  the  lower  part  was  generally 
a  series  of  panels  representing  scrolls  of  parchment,  half 
unrolled,  —  a  special  form  of  decoration  used  for  two  cen- 
turies. In  the  reign  of  Louis  XL,  when  carving  played  the 
chief  role  in  furniture,  figures  entered  largely  into  the 
ornamentation  of  the  dressoir-huffet,  which,  heretofore, 
had  exhibited  only  foliage  and  details  of  architecture.  At 
this  period,  the  old  French  School  admitted  pilasters  with 
arabesques  and  antique  medallions  of  the  Renaissance, 
though  holding  to  the  Gothic  pinnacles,  while  the  new  school 
founded  on  the  borders  of  the  Loire  by  the  Italian  artists 
of  the  court,  cheerfully  used  all  the  arabesques  and  trophies 
and  forms  of  ornament  brought  over  the  mountains  from 
Milan  and  Florence. 

The  form  of  the  dressoir  also  changed  —  it  ceased  to  be 
four-square  and  became  a  trapeze.  The  two  uprights  of 
the  front  were  cut  out  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  supplemen- 
tary panels,  which  rested  on  two  pillars  formed  like  Gothic 
columns  or  balusters.  The  old  French  workmen  habitually 
carved  on  the  doors  of  these  pieces  the  story  of  the  An- 
nunciation, while  those  who  fell  under  the  Italian  influence 
covered  the  doors  and  panels  with  a  whole  vegetation  of 
arabesques,  fleurons,  and  trophies  of  exquisite  elegance. 
Moreover,  it  is  not  rare  to  find  dressoirs  in  which  these  two 

112 


•«6>  »»«N  K  ^wf^ic^»w^aww»*      •■«  *.. 


Plate  LIII 

Double  Chest  of  Drawers,  or  Chest-upon-Chest, 

Mahogany 

Metropolitan  Museum 


to 


Q    HH 

0     O 

?? 
ft  E3 
C      r+ 

3     ^ 


O 


Chests  and  Cupboards 

styles  are  mingled;  and  it  is  impossible  to  say  to  which 
School  they  belong.  After  a  time,  the  fusion  was  com- 
plete and  the  workshops  of  Ile-de-France,  Touraine,  Nor- 
mandy, Auvergne,  Burgundy  and  Lyons  produced  works 
in  the  new  style,  but  which  were  absolutely  French  in 
character.  The  work  of  Jean  Goujon  and  Germain  Pilon 
inspired  the  wood-carvers  of  Normandy  and  1' Ile-de-France, 
while  Hugues  Sambin  was  influenced  by  the  sculptors  of 
the  Rhone  valley  and  the  arabesques  designed  by  the 
printers  of  Lyons. 

The  dressoir,  or  buffet,  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  dif- 
fered little  in  form  from  previous  models.  In  some 
examples,  however,  both  parts  were  open,  and  neither  con- 
tained a  cupboard ;  in  others,  the  armoire  was  in  the  lower 
part.  Some  of  them  might  be  compared  in  form  to  the 
modern  upright  piano.  Magnificent  carving  characterizes 
the  Burgundian  examples  as  well  as  those  of  the  Lyonnais 
School.  The  panels  are  frequently  carved  with  mythological 
or  classic  subjects,  and  chimaerae  or  satyrs  issue  from  the 
graceful  and  abundant  foliage  in  the  style  of  Goujon  and 
Du  Cerceau. 

In  the  museums  and  private  collections  a  great  number 
of  dressoirs  are  preserved.  The  oldest  examples,  dating 
from  the  beginning  of  the  Fifteenth  Century,  are  very 
simple  in  their  decoration.  Those  dating  from  the  reign 
of  Louis  XI.  are  frequently  carved  with  the  Annunciation. 
Beautiful  examples,  on  which  sometimes  the  monograms  of 
Louis  XII.  and  Anne  of  Brittany,  are  seen,  were  made  by 
the  School  of  Touraine.  Less  delicately  carved  but 
splendid  examples  were  produced  in  Germany  and  Flanders ; 
but  perhaps  the  handsomest  of  all  were  made  by  the 
joiners  of  Burgundy  and  Lyons. 

A  Burgundian  dressoir  is  shown  on  Plate  XII.  It  is  made 
of  carved  wood,  furnished  with  two  doors  and  two  drawers, 

113 


Furniture 

and  supported  on  a  console  with  two  pillars.  The  back  of 
the  console  is  carved  with  two  cartouches,  one  bearing  a 
coat-of-arms,  and  the  other  the  date  1570.  The  base  rests 
on  flattened  ball  feet.  The  carving  is  elaborate,  consisting 
of  caryatides,  foliage,  palmettes  and  scrolls.  The  panel  of 
the  door  on  the  left  represents  the  Sacrifice  of  Abraham 
and  the  one  on  the  right,  the  Blessing  of  Jacob.  Above  the 
one  is  a  figure  of  Justice;  above  the  other,  a  figure  of 
Charity. 

The  Court-Cupboard 

In  England  this  piece  of  furniture  was  known  as  the 
court-cupboard  and  was  used  for  the  display  and  keeping 
of  plate  and  other  table-furniture.  It  was  always  in  evi- 
dence at  great  entertainments;  and,  like  the  dressoir,  the 
number  of  its  shelves  was  regulated  by  etiquette.  In 
France  two  shelves  were  allowed  to  ordinary  persons ;  three 
to  the  nobility;  and  four  or  five  to  royalty.  In  England 
two  shelves  were  permitted  in  the  baronet's  home;  three  in 
an  earl's;  four  were  given  to  a  princess;  and  five  to  a 
Queen. 

"The  dressers  of  countesses  should  have  three  shelves, 
on  which  should  be  ranged  dishes,  pots,  flagons,  and  large 
drinking-cups,  whilst  on  the  broadest  part  of  the  dresser 
there  should  be  two  large  wax  candles,  to  be  lit  when  any 
one  is  in  the  room,"  is  an  old  rule. 

When  Henry  VIII.  entertained  some  French  Ambas- 
sadors at  Greenwich,  he  had  a  "  cupborde  seven  stages  high 
and  thirteen  feet  long,  set  with  standing  cuppes,  holies,  flag- 
gons  and  great  pottles  all  of  fine  golde,  some  garnished 
with  one  stone  and  some  with  other  stones  and  pearles." 
On  great  occasions  the  court-cupboard  sometimes  consisted 
of  as  many  as  twelve  shelves.    The  livery-cupboard,  on  the 

114 


Plate  LIV 

Seventeenth  Century  Carved  Oak  Cupboard 
Metropolitan  Museum 


Chests  and  Cupboards 


other  hand,  seems  to  have  been  exclusively  used  for  service 
and  as  a  receptacle  for  food.  It  received  its  name  from  the 
French  livrer  (to  deliver) ;  and  it  always  stood  in  the 
mediaeval  banquet-hall.  From  it  viands  were  served  —  de- 
livered. By  its  side  stood  the  head-butler  in  ceremonious 
attitude.  Upon  the  court-cupboard  were  arranged  the 
plate,  the  cups,  the  ewer  and  basin  which  took  the  place 
of  the  modern  fingerbowls  and  the  big  almsdish.  In  his 
Creed  of  an  Epicure  (1576),  James  Sandford  says:  "My 
chambers  (I  sayde  my  parlours  and  other  romes)  hangyd 
with  cloth  of  gold,  my  cupboardes  heades  set  out  and 
adorned  after  the  richest,  costliest  and  most  glorious  man- 
ner, with  one  cuppe  cock  height  upon  another,  beside  the 
greate  basin  and  ewer  of  silver  and  gold  filled  at  tymes  with 
sweete  and  pleasant  waters.'' 

The  livery-cupboard  was  sometimes  kept  in  the  bedrooms 
with  light  provisions  for  an  impromptu  meal.  It  was  fur- 
nished with  doors  and  locks,  and  the  panels  were  often 
perforated  for  the  sake  of  ventilation.  In  some  rural  dis- 
tricts in  England  these  old  cupboards  are  known  popularly 
as  "  bread-and-cheese  cupboards." 

The  Buffet 

The  dressoir,  which  was  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  the 
life  of  the  Middle  Ages,  did  not  suffice  for  the  luxuries 
that  developed  in  the  Seventeenth  Century,  and  the  great 
buffet  took  its  place.  At  the  end  of  the  Seventeenth  Cen- 
tury the  dressoir  disappeared. 

The  buffet  a  deux  corps  was  usually  a  massive  and 
elegant  piece  of  furniture.  It  may  be  described  as  two 
boxes,  placed  one  above  the  other  and  opened  by  means 
of  four  doors,  two  in  each  part.  These  doors  were 
carved  with  trophies,   cartouches  and  chimaerae,   and  the 

115 


Furniture 

panels  separated  by  handsomely  sculptured  terms,  or 
caryatides. 

Du  Cerceau  and  Delaune  designed  many  of  these  buffets, 
the  various  parts  of  which  are  not  always  clearly  defined ; 
and  sometimes  it  is  hard  to  tell  whether  they  are  armoires, 
buffets,  or  dressoirs.  In  searching  for  what  was  novel, 
these  designers  often  became  eccentric.  However,  the 
superiority  of  the  execution  often  atoned  for  the  inferiority 
of  the  form. 

The  dressoirs  by  Du  Cerceau  are  of  three  varieties;  one 
is  divided  into  two  compartments ;  another  into  three ;  and 
the  third,  a  chest  with  folding  doors  placed  on  a  hollowed- 
out  base  or  stand,  and  the  top  adorned  with  some  architec- 
tural ornamentation.  During  the  last  period  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century,  the  general  heaviness  increased;  and  the  buffet- 
dressoir  grew  to  resemble  the  models  in  favor  in  Germany 
and  the  Low  Countries.  They  were  sometimes  supported 
on  swelling  balusters  and  ornamented  with  many  columns ; 
and,  after  a  time,  carving  was  given  up  for  inlaid  woods. 
The  colossal  Flemish  armoire  of  Vredeman  de  Vries  was 
the  favorite  model.  In  the  Seventeenth  Century,  however, 
the  buffet  took  its  definite  shape,  —  a  piece  of  furniture  in 
two  parts,  enclosed  by  two  doors  in  each,  the  upper  part 
being  slightly  smaller  than  the  lower  and  placed  a  little 
back.  The  armoire,  on  the  other  hand,  was  enclosed  by  two 
long  wings. 

The  use  of  the  buffet-dressoir  was  to  hold  the  dishes  and 
dessert  and  table  utensils.  There  are  few  dining-rooms  in 
which  this  piece  of  furniture  does  not  appear,  but  it  was 
forced  to  become  smaller  for  the  smaller  dining-room.  In 
modern  buffets,  the  old  shelves  have  been  restored. 

In  England  the  court-cupboard  gave  way  to  the  buffet 
towards  the  close  of  the  Seventeenth  Century.  In  1710, 
"  buffet "  is  described  as  "  in  a  vestibule  or  dining-room,  a 

116 


Plate  LV 

Court-Cupboard  with  applied  Ornaments.     Jacobean 
Metropolitan  Museum 


Chests  and  Cupboards 

large  table  with  stages  in  the  style  of  a  credence  upon  which 
are  displayed  the  vases,  basins  and  crystal  for  the  service  of 
the  table  and  for  magnificence.  This  buffet,  which  the 
Italians  call  credence,  is  with  them  usually  placed  in  the 
great  salon  and  closed  in  by  a  balustrade  breast  high." 

In  England  the  buffet  was  also  the  little  corner-cupboard 
fixed  to  the  wall.  In  1748,  Dyche  defines  it  as  "A  hand- 
some open  cupboard  or  repository  for  plate,  glasses,  china, 
etc.,  which  are  put  there  either  for  ornament,  or  convenience 
of  serving  the  table." 

This  buffet  soon  went  out  of  use  for  the  dining-room,  for, 
in  1 75 1,  Chambers  writes:  '^  Beau  fait,  Buffet,  or  Bufet 
was  anciently  a  little  apartment  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  room  by  slender  wooden  columns,  for  disposing  china 
and  glassware,  etc.,  also  called  a  cabinet.  It  is  now  properly 
a  large  table  in  a  dining-room,  called  also  a  sideboard,  for 
the  plate,  glasses,  bottles,  basins,  etc.,  to  be  placed."  The 
sideboard,  therefore,  was  now  nothing  but  a  plain  table, 
without  drawers,  or  cupboards,  or  upper  shelves.  Chip- 
pendale gives  designs  only  for  what  he  calls  sideboard- 
tables. 

In  France  also  during  the  first  half  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  the  sideboard  was  only  a  table,  usually  of  stone  or 
marble.  In  1710,  the  architect  D' A  viler  thus  describes  the 
buffet:  "  The  buffet  can  be  incrusted  with  marble  or  Port- 
land stone,  or  wainscotted  with  woodwork.  It  consists  of 
a  recess  which  occupies  one  entire  side  of  the  room;  here 
you  place  a  table  of  marble  or  stone  supported  on  consoles, 
beneath  which  you  may  stand  a  small  stone  basin  for  cool- 
ing the  wine  bottles.  On  each  side  of  the  table  is  a  deep 
niche,  ornamented  with  aquatic  attributes,  such  as  tritons, 
dolphins  and  mascarons  of  gilded  lead,  which  throw  water 
into  the  little  basins  below,  from  which  it  escapes,  as  well 
as  into  the  basin  underneath  the  table.     The  back  of  the 

117 


Furniture 

buffet  is  ornamented  with  a  little  gallery  of  consoles,  above 
which  is  hung  a  picture,  usually  representing  fruits  or 
flowers,  a  concert  of  music,  or  other  pleasant  subjects." 

Again,  in  designing  a  dining-room,  he  says:  "The 
chimney-piece  faces  the  two  windows;  the  angles  are 
rounded,  and  in  them  I  have  placed  niches  for  marble 
tables,  on  which  can  be  set  the  silver,  crystal  and  dessert, 
during  the  repast,  and  afterwards  be  put  away  in  the  closet 
next  to  this  room."  Evidently,  the  carved-wood  dressoir, 
in  all  its  forms  and  developments,  has  gone  out  of  fashion. 

The  buffet  and  the  sideboard  were  entirely  distinct  during 
the  Eighteenth  Century.  In  1803  Sheraton  writes: 
"  Buffet,  anciently  an  apartment  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  room  by  small  pilasters  or  balusters.  Their  use  was 
for  placing  china  and  glass-ware,  with  other  articles  of  a 
similar  nature.  In  houses  of  persons  of  distinction  in 
France  the  buffet  is  in  a  detached  room,  decorated  with 
pictures  suitable  to  the  use  of  such  apartments,  as  fountains, 
cisterns,  vases,  etc.  These  ancient  buffets  seem  in  some 
measure  superseded  by  the  use  of  modern  sideboards,  but 
not  altogether,  as  china  is  seldom,  if  ever,  placed  upon 
them,  and  we,  therefore,  think  that  a  buffet  may,  with 
some  propriety,  be  restored  to  modern  use,  and  prove 
ornamental  to  a  breakfast  room,  answering  as  the  repository 
of  a  tea-equipage.  Under  this  idea,  we  have  given  a  design 
of  one.  The  lower  part  is  to  be  enclosed  with  doors,  having 
silk  curtains,  with  worked  brass  or  wire  before  them.  The 
upright  border  on  the  top  of  the  lower  part  is  of  brass, 
together  with  those  round  the  china  shelves.  These  shelves 
are  supported  at  each  end  by  four  brass  columns,  made 
very  light.  The  lights  on  each  side  are  of  brass,  and  may 
be  unscrewed  and  taken  away  occasionally.  As  these 
buffets  would  suit  well  to  be  placed  one  on  each  side  of  the 
fireplace  of  a  breakfast-room,  they  might  very  conveniently 

118 


J  J  .15    3    3 


GO 


C/3       t' 


Chests  and  Cupboards 


hold  such  branches  with  the  addition  of  one  on  the  top. 
Under  the  cornice  is  a  Gothic  drapery  and  fringe  above 
it." 

The  Sideboard 

Thus  the  cupboard,  or  dresser  with  drawers,  —  the 
buffet-sideboard  —  disappeared  for  a  time  and  the  side- 
board, instead  of  being  a  storing  place  for  linen,  wine, 
silver,  dishes,  etc.,  became  merely  a  serving-table  or 
carving-board.  An  oak  sideboard  in  the  South  Kensington 
Museum,  given  to  the  period  of  William  III.,  seems  to  in- 
dicate that  the  sideboard-table  belongs  to  the  Dutch  period 
of  English  furniture.  In  Chippendale's  day,  however,  even 
the  drawers  beneath  the  top  were  omitted.  Chippendale 
made  sideboard-tables  and  not  sideboards.  His  earliest 
form  was  in  the  Louis  Quinze  Style  and  varied  from  four 
to  seven  feet  in  length.  The  legs  were  heavy  and  frequently 
cabriole  in  shape,  ending  in  the  claw-and-ball  foot.  The 
upper  edge  supporting  the  top  was  frequently  carved,  and 
the  spring  of  the  knee  was  also  often  carved.  The  acanthus 
leaf,  the  egg-and-tongue,  the  gadroon  edge  and  shell  and  the 
Vitruvian  scroll  are  the  patterns  usually  employed. 

"  The  top  was  sometimes  of  mahogany,  but  generally  con- 
sisted of  a  large  slab  of  finely  figured  marble,  occasionally 
of  some  coarse  slate  or  other  medium,  with  a  veneer  of  fine 
marble  over  it.  The  master  eschewed  the  use  of  wood  be- 
cause it  was  liable  to  be  marked  by  the  hot  dishes  placed 
upon  it.  .  .  It  is  quite  exceptional  to  find  one  of  these 
*  boards '  with  a  drawer  or  other  fittings ;  but  now  and  then 
one  comes  across  an  example  with  a  single  drawer,  more 
commonly  a  slab  to  pull  out  and  increase  the  area  upon  which 
china,  glass,  or  silver  could  rest."  ^ 

^  Wheeler. 
119 


Furniture 

Later  in  his  career,  Chippendale  used  Chinese  fretwork 
as  decoration  for  his  serving-  or  side-tables,  and  placed 
large  carved  brackets  at  the  angles  where  the  legs  joined 
the  slab.  Very  rarely  he  added  a  low  rail  of  wood  on  the 
edge  of  the  slab  next  the  wall.  He  also  very  often  intro- 
duced some  Gothic  ornamentation  into  his  Louis  Quinze  or 
Chinese  treatment. 

Chippendale's  sideboard-table  differed  little  if  at  all  from 
his  pier-table. 

"  There  is  considerable  doubt  as  to  the  origin  of  the  side- 
board, as  we  now  know  it.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the 
original  sideboard  was  a  large  side-table,  and  in  Chippen- 
dale's time,  this  used  to  be  crowned  with  a  more  or  less 
beautifully  figured  marble  in  order  that  the  hot  dishes  and 
plates  resting  upon  it  should  leave  no  marks.  The  brothers 
Adam  supplemented  this  model  by  two  pedestal  cupboards 
which  stood  one  at  each  end  of  the  '  board,'  and  these  were 
in  turn  crowned  by  knife-urns,  or  rarely  by  a  wine-urn  and 
knife-urn.  Presently  we  find  these  wing  additions  being 
incorporated  with  the  '  board  ' ;  but  who  was  responsible 
for  the  new  idea?  It  may  be  laid  down  at  once  that  the 
brothers  Adam,  Heppelwhite,  and  Shearer  were  all  at  work 
when  the  change  took  place.  Successful  as  the  Adams  had 
been  with  their  original  tables  and  pedestals,  they  were  far 
from  happy  when  the  new  sideboard  came  in.  Shearer 
seems  to  have  been  the  first  illustrator  of  the  complete  side- 
board, and  very  charming  examples  he  gave  us,  even  though 
the  majority  of  them  were  somewhat  plain  in  quality."  ^ 

Constance  Simon  holds  Robert  Adam  responsible  for  the 
invention  of  the  pedestal,  or  cellaret  sideboard.  She  says: 
"  Robert  Adam's  sketches  for  sideboards  with  pedestal 
cupboards,  surmounted  by  urns,  are  the  earliest  examples 
that  have  come  down  to  us  of  this  type  of  furniture.     It 

1  Wheeler. 
I20 


Plate  LVII 
Sheraton  Sideboard.     Sideboard  designed  by  Heppelwhite 


Chests  and  Cupboards 


is  very  likely  that  he  was  the  first  to  conceive  the  idea  of 
thus  elaborating  the  simple  serving-table  of  the  ^earlier 
part  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.  The  pedestals  were  some- 
times fixed  to  the  centre  framework  and  sometimes  de- 
tached. The  sideboards  were  often  fitted  with  a  brass 
rail  at  the  back  in  order  to  support  the  silver  plate.  The 
chief  wood  of  which  the  sideboards  were  made  was 
mahogany;  the  ornaments  were  wood  inlay,  carving, 
stucco  and  brass.  Adam's  dining-rooms  frequently  had 
a  carved  recess  at  one  end  with  a  concave  vault  above,  and 
he  then  designed  a  sideboard  with  a  curved  back  exactly  to 
fit  this  recess." 

Heppelwhite's  sideboard  generally  contained  one  long 
central  drawer  and  a  short  drawer  at  each  end,  beneath 
which  was  a  deep  drawer.  The  legs  were  often  ornamented 
with  a  fall  of  bell-flowers  in  satin-wood  and  terminated  in 
the  "  spade  "  foot. 

Heppel white  speaks  as  if  this  form  were  new.  He 
says: 

"  The  great  utility  of  this  piece  of  furniture  has  procured 
it  a  very  general  reception ;  and  the  conveniences  it  affords 
render  a  dining-room  incomplete  without  a  sideboard."  In 
explaining  its  features  he  tells  us  that  "  the  right  hand 
drawer  has  partitions  for  wine  bottles.  Behind  this  is  a 
place  for  cloths  or  napkins,  occupying  the  whole  depth  of 
the  drawer. 

"  The  drawer  on  the  left  hand  has  two  divisions,  the 
hinder  one  lined  with  green  cloth  to  hold  plate,  etc.,  under 
a  cover ;  the  front  one  is  lined  with  lead  for  the  convenience 
of  holding  water  to  wash  glasses,  etc. ;  there  must  be  a  valve- 
cock  or  plug,  at  the  bottom,  to  let  off  the  dirty  water,  and 
also  in  the  other  drawer  to  change  the  water  necessary  to 
keep  the  wine,  etc.,  cool ;  or  they  may  be  made  to  take  out. 
The  long  drawer  in  the  middle  is  adapted  for  table-linen, 

121 


Furniture 

etc.  They  are  often  made  to  fit  into  a  recess,  but  the 
general  custom  is  to  make  them  from  5>4  to  7  feet  long,  3 
feet  high,  and  2%  to  2i^  inches  wide." 

However  this  may  be,  we  find  Heppelwhite  making  side- 
boards with  and  without  drawers,  i.  e.,  the  old  sideboard- 
table,  pedestals  and  vases,  which  held  their  place  on  each 
side  of  the  sideboard,  and  sideboards  which  were  elaborately 
fitted  up  with  conveniences  for  the  butler.  The  vases  that 
surmounted  the  pedestals  were  intended  to  hold  iced-water 
for  drinking,  water  for  the  butler's  use,  or  they  were  knife- 
cases.  The  height  of  the  pedestal  was  the  same  as  the 
sideboard,  and  the  pedestal  was  sixteen  or  eighteen  inches 
square.    The  vase  stood  two  feet,  three  inches. 

The  vase  knife-case  was,  as  a  rule,  made  of  satin-wood, 
or  of  copper,  painted  and  japanned.  A  small  spring  fixed 
to  the  stem  supported  the  top  of  the  case. 

Shearer's  sideboards  are  somewhat  lighter  in  general 
effect  than  Heppelwhite's  except  in  the  case  where  the 
pedestals  are  joined  to  the  body  of  the  piece. 

"  Whether  Shearer  influenced  Heppelwhite  or  Heppel- 
white Shearer  is  a  question  to  which  we  are  not  likely  to 
find  a  definite  answer;  yet  as  a  considerable  portion  of 
Sheraton's  style  was  founded  on  Shearer's  lines,  the  pre- 
sumption is  that  if  a  man  of  such  very  decided  personality 
was  affected,  Heppelwhite  was  no  less  indebted  to  this 
great  but  practically  forgotten  designer."  ^  (See  Plates 
LVI.  andLVn.) 

"  Cellarets,"  says  Heppelwhite,  "  called  also  gardes  de 
vin,  are  generally  made  of  mahogany  and  hooped  with  brass 
hoops  lacquered;  the  inner  part  is  divided  with  partitions 
and  lined  with  lead  for  bottles ;  may  be  made  of  any  shape. 
These  are  of  general  use  where  sideboards  are  without 
drawers." 

1  R.  S.  Clouston. 

122 


J  3  13 


Plate  LVIII 
Seventeenth  Century  Spanish  Cabinet  (Farguenos) 


Chests  and  Cupboards 


Sheraton  informs  us  that  they  were  made  in  the  form  of 
a  sarcophagus  and  "  adapted  to  stand  under  a  sideboard, 
some  of  which  have  covers  and  others  without."  He  thought 
it  a  good  idea  to  have  rings  at  each  end  of  the  cellaret  so 
that  the  servants  could  move  it  about.  He  also  wanted 
the  rings,  as  well  as  the  lions'  feet  or  dolphins'  heads  on 
which  his  models  rested,  to  be  cast  in  brass  and  lacquered. 

Sheraton  continued  to  develop  the  models  put  forth  by 
Heppelwhite  and  Shearer,  but  in  his  later  period  he  returned 
occasionally  to  the  old  sideboard-table  without  drawers. 
Sideboards  of  this  character  were  ornamented  with  a 
little  brass  rail  and  separate  pedestals  with  vases  stood  at 
each  side  of  the  table. 

In  some  Sheraton  sideboards  the  pedestals  were  made 
separately  and  screwed  to  the  sideboard,  and  the  top  slab 
was  placed  over  all  three  parts  and  screwed  down.  The 
part  beneath  the  long  top  drawer,  curved  from  leg  to  leg, 
was  supplied  with  a  tambour-shutter,  and,  therefore, 
formed  a  little  enclosed  cupboard.  The  back  of  such  a 
sideboard  was  decorated  with  a  mirror  or  ornamental  brass- 
work. 

Although  it  required  most  delicate  workmanship,  the 
square  knife-case  was  too  well  known  for  Heppelwhite  to 
describe  it.  He  merely  said :  "  It  may  be  made  of  mahogany 
inlaid,  or  of  satin,  or  of  other  wood  at  pleasure." 

Sheraton  gave  designs  for  knife-cases,  both  concave  and 
convex.  In  his  day  a  pair  of  these  stood  upon  the  sideboard. 
A  tall  vase  or  urn-shaped  case  was  often  made,  especially 
for  spoons. 

The  Empire  Sideboard 

In  the  Eighteenth  Century  the  buffet  disappeared  for  a 
time  from  fashionable  houses  in  Paris.     In  his  book  on 

123 


Furniture 

Architecture,  Sobry  writes :  "  Buffets  are  pieces  of  refectory 
furniture  on  which  rich  vases  proper  to  feasts  are  displayed. 
The  use  of  these  is  dying  out  in  France,  although  all  foreign 
nations  retain  it.  Perhaps  we  shall  return  to  it.  Meanwhile 
we  use  low  buffets,  with  marble  tops,  on  which  the  dishes 
are  placed."  However,  the  old  carved  wood  buffet  was  too 
useful  a  piece  of  furniture  to  be  relinquished  by  the  middle 
and  lower  classes.  It  occurs  constantly  in  the  pictures 
of  Chardin  and  contemporary  prints.  De  Champeaux  says: 
*'  The  extraordinary  skill  of  the  ornament-carvers  of 
the  reigns  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Louis  XV.  enabled  them  to 
produce  buffets,  the  ornamentation  of  which  recalls  the 
finest  woodwork  of  our  palaces.  The  beauty  of  their 
execution  makes  them  sought  by  collectors  almost  as  eagerly 
as  those  pieces  with  copper  and  tortoise-shell  inlay,  or  bronze 
applied  on  exotic  woods.  There  are  exceptions,  however. 
The  buffet  generally  filled  the  more  modest  role  of  a  useful 
piece  of  furniture,  the  roomy  interior  of  which  could 
contain  the  dessert  and  table  and  kitchen  utensils.  Its 
dimensions  would  allow  its  use  only  in  the  large  kitchens 
of  the  provinces ;  and  the  Parisian  kitchens  had  to  be  con- 
tent with  buffets  proportionate  to  their  small  dimensions. 
There  were  few  dining-rooms  without  a  buffet ;  but  it  was 
small  on  account  of  limited  space.  Most  often  it  tended  to 
revert  to  its  original  form  and  assume  the  aspect  of  a 
dressoir.  The  central  body  has  lost  its  isolated  supports 
and  rests  on  the  ground,  and  it  is  surmounted  by  shelves. 
This  form  is  repeated  in  mahogany,  in  the  shops  of  the 
Faubourg  Saint- Antoine,  with  an  abundance  that  is  as 
commonplace  as  inartistic.  Another  disposition  that  is  more 
logical  affects  the  form  of  a  buffet-armoire  the  lower  body  of 
which  serves  as  a  base  and  is  separate  from  shelves  placed  in 
an  armoire  with  glass  doors  by  an  opening  called  the  cave,  in 
which  the  dessert  is  placed.    Unfortunately  this  buffet,  gen- 

124 


Plate  LIX 

Seventeenth  Century  Carved  Ebony  Secretary 
Louvre 


Chests  and  Cupboards 

erally  of  carved  oak,  makes  pretensions  to  carving  the  cheap 
conditions  under  which  it  is  produced  do  not  permit  it  to 
justify.  However,  our  workmen  produced  walnut  buffets 
the  execution  of  which  is  superior  to  the  latter.  Germany 
and  England  carved  numerous  buffets  in  the  Renaissance 
style.  The  former,  returning  to  the  models  of  Dietterlin  and 
De  Vries,  shows  hardly  anything  but  cold  and  heavy  work; 
while  the  insular  production,  by  mingling  the  ornament  of 
the  Tudor  Style  with  the  capricious  forms  of  the  Far  East, 
succeeded  in  creating  original  furniture  entirely  appropriate 
to  the  Anglo-Saxon  spirit.'* 

It  is  interesting  to  note  instructions  in  1821  for  a  side- 
board and  the  wine-cooler  that  stands  beneath  it.  The 
authority  tells  us : 

"  The  sideboard  should  be  made  entirely  of  mahogany  or 
of  fine  oak,  which  has  been  so  generally  adopted  of  late  in 
mansions  furnished  in  the  ancient  style.  This,  in  fact,  is  the 
more  consistent,  and,  therefore,  the  more  tasteful  mode  of 
decoration ;  for,  in  matters  of  this  kind,  consistency  is  abso- 
lutely essential  to  tasteful  decoration.  Mahogany,  however, 
may  be  used  with  great  propriety,  and,  perhaps,  the  effect 
of  that  wood,  on  the  whole,  is  richer  than  that  produced  by 
oak.  Of  course,  however,  the  adoption  of  one  or  the  other 
must  depend  upon  a  variety  of  circumstances. 

"  The  cellaret,  which  has  been  made  in  the  form  of  a  sar- 
cophagus, is  an  imitation  of  one  represented  on  a  tomb  in 
Luton  Church;  and,  of  course,  it  should  be  made  to  corre- 
spond in  size  and  appearance  with  the  other  parts  of  the 
sideboard.  The  shields  are  well  adapted  to  receive  carvings 
of  family  arms  which  would  add  greatly  to  the  richness  and 
appearance  of  the  whole." 


125 


Furititure 


The  Cabinet 

Generally  speaking,  the  cabinet  is  a  chest  placed  on  a 
stand ;  and,  like  the  buffet,  its  upper  part,  or  chest,  is  closed 
by  two  doors.  The  interior  is  composed  of  a  series  of 
drawers  usually  concealed  behind  doors,  or  wings.  The 
drawers  are  frequently  of  different  sizes  and  each  is  locked 
independently  of  the  other.  Often,  too,  there  are  secret 
drawers  and  compartments.  In  the  huche,  as  we  have  seen, 
people  kept  their  small  treasures ;  and  many  a  huche  for  the 
sake  of  convenience  was  made  to  open  on  the  sides;  and,  as 
time  wore  on,  the  huche  was  placed  on  a  stand  with  feet,  and 
was  opened  by  means  of  two  front  doors,  behind  which 
drawers,  or  shelves,  now  replaced  the  little  boxes  with  v/hich 
the  huche  had  occasionally  been  furnished.  In  this  form, 
it  was  used  as  a  marriage  coffer;  and,  when  a  high  stand 
was  added,  it  was  called  a  cabinet. 

Thus,  a  development  of  the  simple  huche,  the  cabinet 
became  one  of  the  most  sumptuous  and  ornate  pieces  of 
furniture;  and  the  wood  cabinet-maker  was  employed  to 
describe  the  artisan  who  made  fine  furniture,  while  the  com- 
mon joiner  made  the  simpler  pieces. 

Some  authorities  insist  that  this  form  of  furniture  is  of 
Oriental  origin;  and  certainly  the  examples  produced  in 
some  countries  show  Eastern  influence  in  both  form  and 
decoration.  Venice,  Spain  and  Portugal  received  many 
cabinets  from  the  East;  and  in  Spain  and  Portugal  the 
cabinet  was  made  in  great  numbers,  especially  in  Vargas, 
a  province  of  Toledo,  from  which  some  authorities  say  the 
word  varguenos,  or  harguenos,  is  derived.  Where  these 
cabinets  were  ornamented  with  marquetry  or  pierced  metal- 
work,  or  made  of  exotic  wood,  carved  or  incrusted  with 
ivory  or  ebony,  they  were  of  a  special  fashion  that  did  not 

126 


'       '         ;         ) 


Plate  LX 


Eighteenth  Century  Italian 

Carved  and  Gilt  Cabinet  on 

Stand 


Eighteenth  Century  English 

Carved  and  Gilt  Cabinet  on 

Stand 


Lu< 


c         t  t 


Chests  and  Cupboards 


cross  the  Pyrenees.  Cabinets  of  tortoise-shell,  incrusted 
with  ivory  or  mother-of-pearl,  were  made  in  Lisbon  by 
Prabro  Fibrug;  and  one  signed  Jeronimo  Fernandez,  1661, 
is  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 

In  the  varguenos  the  adaptation  of  the  coffer  is  very 
evident.  The  long  box  is  placed  on  a  stand  consisting  of  two 
legs  strengthened  by  a  balustrade.  The  outside  of  the 
simple  box  is  ornamented  with  iron-work.  The  flap  lets 
down  and  is  held  by  supports  pulled  forward  from  their 
invisible  hiding-place.  The  interior,  then  seen,  is  divided 
into  a  number  of  little  drawers,  or  closets  enclosed  by  wings. 
The  interior  of  these  Spanish  cabinets  is  exactly  like  the 
Italian  and  Flemish  cabinets,  the  only  difference  being  in  the 
style  of  decoration  for  the  faces  of  the  drawers  and  shutters. 
In  an  old  dialogue  published  in  1669,  the  following  questions 
are  asked  and  answered:  "How  much  has  your  worship 
paid  for  this  cabinet?"  "It  is  worth  more  than  forty 
ducats."  "  What  wood  is  it  made  of?  "  "  The  red  one  is 
made  of  mahogany  from  the  Habanas,  and  the  black  one  is 
made  of  ebony  and  the  white  one  of  ivory.  You  will  find 
the  workmanship  excellent.  Here  you  will  find  a  finer 
cabinet."  "Where  was  it  made?"  "It  was  brought  with 
these  chairs  from  Salamanca." 

Cabinets  decorated  with  pietra  dura  were  imported  into 
Spain,  for  Madame  d'Aulnoy,  when  describing  the  house  of  a 
grandee  of  Spain  in  her  Voyage  en  Espagne  (1643),  speaks 
of  "  fine  cabinets  enriched  with  stones,  which  are  not  made 
in  Spain."  "  What  I  find  most  beautiful,"  she  adds,  "  are 
the  escaparates,  a  species  of  small  cabinet,  shut  with  one 
door  and  filled  with  every  imaginable  rarity." 

Among  a  list  of  Spanish  wood-carvers  of  the  Sixteenth  and 
the  Seventeenth  Century,  the  names  occur  of  Francisco,  mas- 
ter-maker of  cabinets  in  ebony  and  ivory  (161 7),  and  Lucas 
de  Velasco,  master  in  painting  and  gilding  cabinets  ( 1633). 

127 


Furniture 

Cabinets  and  armoires  were  also  covered  with  tortoise- 
shell  and  gilt-bronze,  and  enclosed  by  glass  doors.  Cabinets 
of  ebony,  inlaid  and  covered  with  repousse  silver-work  must 
have  been  very  generally  made  in  Spain.  Silver  was  used 
to  so  great  an  extent  after  the  conquest  of  America  that 
a  law  was  issued  in  1574  prohibiting  with  the  utmost  rigor 
the  making  and  selling  of  this  kind  of  merchandise  in  order 
not  to  increase  the  scarcity  of  silver.  "  No  cabinets,  desks, 
coffers,  braziers,  etc.,  shall  be  manufactured  of  silver,"  was 
one  order  issued. 

Cabinets  of  inlaid  ivory,  or  different  colored  woods,  were 
brought  into  Spain  from  Italy  and  Germany;  in  fact,  so 
many  cabinets  and  escritoires  were  imported  that  a  petition 
was  presented  to  the  King  by  one  Pedro  Gutierrez  begging 
for  protection  for  this  industry.  We  also  learn  that  "  The 
cabinets  and  escritoires  (contadores  y  bufetes),  which  were 
worth  500,  600  and  700  reales  when  brought  from  Germany, 
are  now  made  in  Spain  for  250  and  300  reales  each ;  "  and 
in  1603  Philip  III.  issued  an  edict  in  which  "  cabinets  of 
every  kind  coming  from  Nuremberg  are  not  allowed  to 
enter   the  country." 

Escritorios  de  la  Chine,  described  by  De  Laval  (see  page 
38),  were  probably  the  same  kind  of  articles  that  Catherine 
of  Braganza  took  with  her  sixty  years  later  when  she  went 
to  London  as  the  bride  of  the  king;  for  Evelyn  tells  us  that : 

"  The  Queen  brought  over  with  her  from  Portugal  such 
Indian  cabinets  as  had  never  before  been  seen  here." 

Flanders  excelled  in  making  cabinets ;  and  Antwerp  was 
especially  famous  for  them.  French  noblemen  had  such 
a  fancy  for  collecting  Flemish  cabinets  that  Henri  II.  sent 
French  workmen  to  the  Low  Countries  to  learn  the  art  of 
making  them  and  of  carving  in  ebony.  On  their  return, 
he  established  them  in  the  Louvre.  One  of  these  was 
Laurent  Stabre ;  another,  Pierre  Boulle,  the  uncle  of  Andre 

128 


Plate  LXI 

Eighteenth  Century  English  Painted  Cabinet  on 
Stand 


Chests  and  Cupboards 

Charles  Boulle ;  and  another,  Jean  Mace  of  Blois,  who  was 
given  a  lodging  in  the  Louvre  "  on  account  of  his  long  prac- 
tice of  this  art  in  the  Low  Countries,  and  the  skill  he  has 
shown  in  his  cabinet-work  in  ebony  and  other  woods  of 
various  colors  that  he  has  presented  to  the  Regent  Queen." 

Du  Cerceau  also  designed  cabinets  of  very  elegant  form. 

The  cabinet  was  the  most  fashionable  piece  of  furniture  in 
the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries.  Not  only  was  it 
made  of  wood  or  damaskeened  metal  and  variously  carved 
or  inlaid,  but  we  also  find  leather  cabinets.  Two  beautiful 
examples  of  the  latter  are  in  Cluny  Museum;  one  is  of 
azure  leather  stamped  with  gold,  and  exhibiting  all  the  skill 
of  the  book-binder's  work.  The  picture  on  the  central 
drawer,  a  sort  of  fountain  of  love  at  which  are  standing  a 
knight  and  a  lady,  is  supposed  to  represent  Philip  IV.  and 
Margaret  of  Austria,  who  were  married  in  1599.  It  is 
thought  to  be  of  Flemish  origin. 

The  faces  of  the  twelve  drawers  each  represent  Renais- 
sance pictures,  and  each  is  different. 

The  second  cabinet  is  French,  and  dates  from  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIII.  It  is  of  red  morocco,  tooled  with  gold. 
The  supports  are  also  of  leather.  These  two  pieces  are  as 
beautiful  as  they  are  curious. 

Ebony  cabinets  with  geometrical  motives.  Renaissance 
patterns,  pictures,  etc.,  in  ivory;  cabinets  inlaid  with  mother- 
of-pearl  and  ivory  and  embellished  with  arabesques  of  gold ; 
and  cabinets  of  iron  damaskeened  with  gold  and  silver 
and  decorated  with  bas-reliefs  were  made  in  Milan,  Naples 
and  Venice;  and  all  were  upon  practically  the  same  archi- 
tectural model  —  first  the  stand,  or  table,  on  four,  six,  or 
eight  legs  connected  by  stretchers  on  which  rests  a  pyramid 
of  drawers  flanked  by  columns,  or  pilasters,  enclosed  by 
doors  or  a  falling-flap  and  surmounted  by  an  ornamental 
figure,  or  several  figures.     The  interior  was  often  elabor- 

129 


Furniture 

ately  decorated  with  marbles,  agates,  lapis-lazuli,  amber, 
mother-of-pearl,  tortoise-shell,  and  sometimes  marquetry  of 
colored  woods  or  ivory.  Nothing  could  be  more  sumptuous 
than  the  Italian  cabinets  thus  inlaid  with  exotic  woods,  or 
incrusted  with  precious  metals  and  semi-precious  stones. 
Some  of  them  had  pilasters  of  lapis-lazuli,  plates  of  em- 
bossed silver,  paintings,  miniatures  and  silver  or  gold 
figurines.  To  make  such  a  work,  a  great  number  of  crafts- 
men were  required. 

Ebony  seems  to  have  been  the  favorite  wood  in  use  in 
Italy;  and  many  of  the  ebony  cabinets  contained  in  the 
Pitti  Palace  and  the  Louvre  might  pass  for  mourning  furni- 
ture until  they  are  opened,  when  the  utmost  magnificence  is 
revealed  in  the  decoration  of  the  drawers. 

Cardinal  Richelieu  had  some  splendid  Italian  cabinets, 
some  of  which  passed  into  the  possession  of  Cardinal  Maz- 
arin.  One  of  these  was  five  feet  long  and  five  feet,  ten 
inches  high.  It  rested  on  four  ebony  columns  united  in 
front  and  four  pear-wood  pilasters  behind.  The  octagonal 
panel  on  the  doors  represented  Amphion  on  the  dolphin; 
the  frieze  was  decorated  with  marine  monsters;  and  the 
interior  compartments  adorned  with  flowers. 

One  of  Mazarin's  treasures  was  described  as : 

"  An  ebony  cabinet  having  a  little  moulding  on  the  sides, 
quite  plain  outside,  the  front  being  divided  into  three  ar- 
cades, in  the  middle  of  which  are  six  niches,  in  four  of 
which  in  the  lower  row,  are  four  virgins  of  ebony  bearing 
bouquets  of  silver,  the  said  doors  being  ornamented  with 
eight  columns  of  veined  lapis-lazuli,  the  bases  and  capitals  of 
composite  order  in  silver,  the  fronts  of  the  doors  and  the 
rest  of  the  cabinet  being  ornamented  with  various  pieces, 
viz.,  cornalines,  agate  and  jasper,  set  with  silver;  and  above 
the  arcades  are  three  masques  in  jasper  and  twelve  roses 
of  the  same  mixed  with  six  oval  cornalines;  the  remainder 

130 


Plate  LXII 
Late  Louis  XV.  Encoignure,  or  Corner  Cabinet 


Chests  and  Cupboards 


is  ornamented  with  silver  let  into  the  ebony  in  cartouche  and 
leaf -work." 

A  famous  cabinet  of  ebony  decorated  with  small  columns 
of  pietra  dura  and  bronze  ornaments  was  made  by  Buon- 
talenti  for  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  was  further 
ornamented  with  miniatures  of  the  most  beautiful  ladies  of 
Florence ;  and  another  great  cabinet  said  to  have  been  made 
for  Marie  of  Gonzaga,  Queen  of  Poland,  now  in  the  Cluny, 
shows  the  kind  of  furniture  made  in  Florence  at  the  end  of 
the  Sixteenth  and  beginning  of  the  Seventeenth  Century. 
This  is  in  three  stages  and  is  encased  in  tortoise-shell 
within  and  without.  It  is  embellished  with  pietra  dura  and 
other  stones,  representing  birds  and  landscapes ;  and,  more- 
over, it  is  adorned  with  pilasters  of  lapis-lazuli,  cornelians, 
plaques  of  silver,  paintings  and  miniatures.  The  whole  piece 
is  ornamented  with  beaten  and  open-worked  copper.  The 
cabinet  is  supported  on  a  stand  with  four  legs  ornamented 
with  copper  capitals.  The  stand  is  also  incrusted  with 
mother-of-pearl  and  tortoise-shell. 

The  interior  is  beautifully  decorated,  and  is  just  as  ornate 
as  the  exterior.  Many  of  the  mosaics,  however,  have  been 
replaced  by  miniatures  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XV. 

It  was  as  fashionable  to  own  German  as  it  was  to  own 
Flemish  cabinets.  Catherine  de'  Medici  was  one  of  those 
who  had  several  "  cabinets  d'  Allemagne." 

Many  of  the  German  cabinets  are  so  wonderfully  deco- 
rated that  they  have  been  aptly  called  "  palaces  in  minia- 
ture." Not  satisfied  with  rare  carvings  in  ivory  and  marvel- 
lous silver  ornamentations  —  the  metal-workers  of  Augs- 
burg were  specially  skilful  —  the  Germans  carried  decoration 
still  further  than  the  Italians  and  introduced  amber  plaques 
into  the  facades,  a  fashion  that  persisted  until  the  Eighteenth 
Century. 

Hans  Schwanhard  (died  1621)  introduced  into  the  deco- 

131 


Furniture 

ration  of  cabinets  the  rayed  and  wavy  borders,  a  character- 
istic by  which  many  pieces  of  furniture  of  the  Seventeenth 
Century  may  be  recognized.  The  Germans  also  borrowed 
from  Italy  the  fashion  of  introducing  into  the  fagades  of 
the  cabinets  painting  and  gold-work  executed  on  glass. 
This  practice  dates  from  the  end  of  the  Fifteenth  and  the 
beginning  of  the  Sixteenth  Century. 

Among  the  famous  examples  of  German  cabinets  is  one 
by  Hans  Schieferstein  dated  1568,  ornamented  with  carved 
ivory;  and  one  by  Kellerthaler  of  Nuremberg,  in  ebony, 
dated  1585  —  both  in  the  Museum  of  Dresden.  An  ebony 
cabinet  decorated  with  plaques  of  copper  on  which  are  en- 
graved pictures  from  Virgilius  Solis,  dating  from  the  end  of 
the  Sixteenth  Century,  is  in  the  Castle  of  Rosenborg  (Copen- 
hagen). The  most  celebrated  of  all  is  the  Kunstschrank  of 
Pomerania,  now  in  the  Museum  of  Industrial  Art,  Berlin. 
The  latter  displays  all  the  magnificence  of  Italian  luxury  as 
interpreted  by  a  German  artist.  This  cabinet  was  made  in 
Augsburg  by  Philip  Hainhofer,  for  Philip  IL,  Duke  of 
Pomerania.  It  was  finished  in  161 7.  Hainhofer  called  in 
the  aid  of  many  artists  for  the  ivory  carvings,  the  silver 
bas-reliefs  and  the  enamelled  plaques  which  entered  into  its 
decoration.  Altogether  the  services  of  one  sculptor,  three 
painters,  one  painter  in  enamel,  six  goldsmiths,  an  organ- 
maker,  two  clock-makers,  a  mechanician,  a  cabinet-maker,  a 
modeller  in  wax,  an  engraver  on  metal,  an  engraver  of 
precious  stones,  a  turner,  a  locksmith,  two  sheath-makers 
and  a  binder  were  employed.  This  wonderful  cabinet  is, 
however,  comparatively  small ;  it  is  but  four  feet,  ten  inches 
high ;  three  feet,  four  inches  wide ;  and  two  feet,  ten  inches 
deep.  The  wood  is  ebony,  supported  on  four  heads  of  grif- 
fins of  silver-gilt,  and  also  a  large  scroll  which  bears  the 
chief  weight.  Lapis-lazuli,  jasper,  cornelian,  agate  and 
chased  silver  ornaments  adorn  the  work ;  and  there  are  also 

132 


> 

H 

X 


Chests  and  Cupboards 


medallions  of  silver  and  Limoges  enamel.  The  drawers 
are  of  sandal- wood  lined  with  red  morocco. 

Every  Dutch  house  of  the  Seventeenth  Century  had  its 
cabinet  for  the  preservation  and  display  of  the  little  articles 
that  had  been  gathered  for  several  generations.  Sometimes 
these  were  simple  and  sometimes  they  were  very  costly.  It 
is  amusing  to  read  that  the  wife  of  an  old  Dutch  pastor  of 
this  date  had  a  longing  for  one  of  these  treasures.  When 
the  worthy  minister  was  asked  how  much  he  would  charge 
for  his  translation  of  Cicero's  Epistolce  ad  familiares,  he 
apologized  for  mentioning  any  reward ;  but  "  having  to  take 
heed  of  his  wife  whom  the  Lord  had  given  him  for  a  help- 
meet," he  asked  for  a  "nutwood  cabinet  with  a  set  of  porce- 
lain to  go  with  it  and  ornaments  for  the  top,"  which  the 
good  lady,  like  all  other  Dutch  ladies  of  her  time,  was  very 
anxious  to  possess;  and  so  the  pastor  hoped  the  consistory 
would  grant  it. 

The  cabinet  was  an  object  of  special  luxury  for  the  ex- 
hibition of  little  articles  of  value  possessed  by  the  rich. 
Whether  carved  or  inlaid,  its  drawers  were  lined  with  mo- 
rocco, velvet,  or  silk;  and  those  cabinets  that  had  glass 
doors  and  shelves  were  covered  with  crimson  velvet,  green 
silk,  tooled-leather,  or  cloth-of-gold.  Very  frequently,  silver 
ribbon  was  twisted  behind  the  glass  into  geometrical  patterns, 
or  into  a  sort  of  lattice-work,  or  the  initials  or  monogram  of 
the  owner,  and  supplied  with  hooks,  from  which  were  sus- 
pended the  watches,  jewels,  silver  trinkets  and  Oriental 
curios  so  valued  by  the  owner. 

There  was  a  great  taste  for  lacquered  cabinets  in  Eng- 
land during  the  days  of  the  later  Stuarts;  and  they  were 
called,  as  a  rule,  "Japan  Cabinets."  These  were  not  only 
imported  from  the  East  and  from  Holland,  but  were  made 
in  England,  where  the  art  of  lacquering  became  known 
about  1633.    I^  i693»  w^  hear  of  "  Japan  Cabinets,  Indian 

133 


Furniture 

and  English/'  made  by  John  Gunley,  in  London.  In  Queen 
Anne's  day,  they  lacquered  upon  oak  and  pine ;  and  some  of 
it  is  in  excellent  preservation.  Later  in  the  century,  they 
used  the  less  durable  beech  and  sycamore.  Lacquered 
panels  were  also  imported  and  made  up  into  the  pieces  of 
furniture. 

Marquetry  cabinets  were  also  highly  prized  in  their  day. 
Occasionally  beautiful  specimens  come  into  the  market.  A 
cabinet  of  the  William  IIL  period  was  sold  recently  in 
London  for  a  hundred  guineas.  It  was  five  feet,  nine  inches 
high  and  three  feet,. eleven  inches  wide.  It  consisted  of  six- 
teen drawers  and  cupboard.  The  work  was  English  mar- 
quetry on  a  walnut  ground,  and  the  folding-doors  were 
beautifully  inlaid  with  birds,  insects  and  flowers  in  vases. 

The  "  Queen  Anne  cabinets  "  most  prized  by  collectors  are 
those  decorated  with  marquetry  in  arabesque  patterns,  or 
with  "  cobweb  "  or  "  seaweed  "  panels.  The  cornice  often 
contains  a  long,  single  drawer,  and  the  inside  of  the  doors  is 
ornamented  with  marquetry  panels. 

A  very  handsome  example  was  sold  recently  in  London 
for  340  guineas.  It  was  composed  of  ten  drawers  and  a 
cupboard  with  one  drawer,  on  a  stand,  having  two  drawers, 
with  scroll-shaped  supports.  The  cabinet  was  inlaid  with 
arabesque  foliage  and  brass  drop-handles.  Its  height  was 
five  feet,  five  inches,  and  its  width  three  feet,  five  inches. 

A  cabinet  of  the  first  half  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  is 
shown  on  Plate  LX.  It  is  of  fine  w^alnut,  inlaid  with  ivory 
and  having  carved  and  gilt  decorations.  The  upper  part  con- 
sists of  a  cupboard  with  a  long  drawer  underneath.  Behind 
this  the  two  small  cupboards  containing  eight  drawers. 
The  stand  has  richly  carved  and  gilt  cabriole  legs  with  ball- 
and-claw  feet.  An  Italian  stand  and  glass  cabinet  of  the 
same  period  shows  similar  legs  with  extravagant  carving 
and  appears  also  on  Plate  LX. 

134 


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to 

">*      no 
^      > 

fa        [7H 


o 

c 


X 
< 


X 


Chests  and  Cupboards 

The  Adam  cabinets  are  semi-circular.  They  are  often 
ornamented  with  painted  panels,  and  are  made  of  beautiful 
exotic  woods.  They  differ  but  little  from  the  commodes  of 
the  day.  The  Heppelwhite  cabinet  is  also  similar  to  the 
Heppelwhite  commode. 

Sheraton  designed  cabinets  in  the  prevailing  taste  of  the 
Louis  XVI.  Style  in  his  first  period ;  and  later  in  his  career 
cabinets  in  the  new  Empire  taste. 

The  following  examples  sold  recently  in  London  are  all 
Sheraton  pieces:  Satin-wood  cabinet  (2  ft.  3  in.  wide)  with 
glazed  folding-doors  carved  with  foliage,  drawers  beneath, 
fluted  legs,  56  guineas;  satin-wood  cabinet  (7  ft.  9  in.  high, 
3  ft.  5  in.  wide),  consisting  of  shelves  behind  glazed  folding- 
doors,  central  drawer  forming  desk,  folding-doors  below, 
the  paintings,  basket  of  flowers,  180  guineas;  small  cabinet 
(2  ft.  wide),  folding-doors  enclosing  drawers,  bands  and 
zigzags  of  tulip-wood,  inlaid,  fall-down  front  and  drawers 
at  end,  100  guineas. 

An  English  painted  cabinet  on  a  stand  (Plate  LXI.)  fol- 
lows the  old  original  form.  The  whole  cabinet  is  painted 
inside  as  well  as  outside  by  Cipriani.  The  two  panels  on 
the  doors  represent  Venus  in  her  car  drawn  by  doves  and  at- 
tended by  Cupid  and  a  Sacrifice  to  Flora;  the  sides  are 
painted  with  Muses,  medallions,  ribbons  and  flowers,  and 
the  top  with  Cupid,  doves  and  flowers.  The  borders  are  deli- 
cately painted  arabesques,  brightened  with  gilt  headings. 
The  doors  are  painted  on  the  other  side  with  mythological 
subjects  and  the  eleven  drawers  they  conceal  with  Cupids, 
doves,  flowers  and  ribbons. 

The  table  on  which  the  cabinet  stands  is  supplied  with  a 
drawer,  the  lines  of  which  follow  the  lines  of  the  cabinet. 
This  is  painted  with  medallions,  classical  figures,  Cupids, 
masks,  arabesques  and  swags  of  flowers,  and  is  supported 
on  tapering  legs  also  sympathetically  painted.     The  back- 

135 


Furniture 

ground  of  the  whole  cabinet  inside  and  out  is  cream  colored, 
the  height  4  feet  and  length  2  feet  2^2  inches. 

What  some  critics  consider  the  most  important  piece  of 
English  furniture  ever  produced  is  a  cabinet  that  was  de- 
signed by  Seddons  in  1793  for  the  King  of  Spain  (Charles 
IV.)  and  made  by  Seddons's  foreman,  Newham.  It  is 
nine  feet  high,  six  feet  long  and  three  feet  at  its  greatest 
depth.  It  is  decorated  with  panels,  painted  by  William 
Hamilton,  R.  A.,  representing  the  insignia  of  the  Spanish 
Orders  of  Knighthood,  the  Golden  Fleece,  the  Immaculate 
Conception,  Spring,  Summer,  Autumn  and  Winter,  Fire  and 
Water,  Night  and  Morning,  Ceres  in  a  car  drawn  by  lions, 
Juno  and  her  peacocks  and  many  Cupids. 

"  The  inlaid  work  on  it  is  superlative,  whilst  the  chased 
and  gilt  metal-work  mounted  on  it  has  no  English  rival.  In- 
side, the  carcase  is  fitted  as  a  dressing-table,  bureau  and 
jewel-case  in  a  most  clever  fashion.  In  contour  a  majestic 
dome  rises  from  the  centre,  and  this  is  flanked  by  two  sepa- 
rate, square-shaped  wings.  Imperial  eagles  guard  the  top, 
whilst  the  whole  rests  on  six  lions  couchant.  Classic  draped 
figures,  cherubs  and  fauns'  heads  in  relief  carving  further 
set  off  this  remarkable  example,  which  is  to-day  worth  many 
thousands  of  pounds."  ^ 

To  this  class  of  furniture  also  belongs  the  china-cupboard 
and  china-cabinet,  known  in  France  as  the  vitriiie  on  account 
of  its  glass  doors.  Chippendale's  china-cabinet  stands  on  a 
frame  and  consists  of  a  series  of  shelves  enclosed  behind 
glass  doors.  Sometimes  the  glass  is  encircled  by  a  gilt 
moulding;  but,  as  a  rule,  it  consists  of  small  panes  brought 
together  in  a  charming  Gothic  pattern  of  squares,  lozenges, 
or  ovals  by  means  of  strap  mouldings.  Small  cabinets  Chip- 
pendale made  in  the  "  Chinese  style  "  with  pagoda  top,^nd, 
perhaps,  a  single  glass  door  with  a  fretwork  border.     The 

*  Wheeler. 
136 


Plate  LXV 

Louis  XV.  Bureau-Commode  with  Bronze-gilt  Ornamentation 

and  Leaf  Shoes 

Chippendale  Bureau-Commode 

Metropolitan  Museum 


Chests  and  Cupboards 


frame  consisting  of  four  straight  legs  sympathetically  carved 
with  Chinese  ornamentation  or  fretwork. 

China  ware  was  at  such  a  height  in  Chippendale's  day  that 
it  is  not  surprising  to  find  a  great  number  of  china-cases, 
shelves,  cupboards  and  cabinets  made  purposely  to  display 
it.  As  a  rule,  the  decoration  of  these  was  a  conglomeration 
of  Chinese  motives:  fretwork,  pagoda  roofs,  mandarin- 
hats,  little  bells,  leaves,  scrolls  and  dripping- water.  One  of 
these  he  describes  as  "  a  very  neat  china-case  upon  a 
frame  with  glass  doors  in  the  front  and  ends;  betwixt  the 
middle  feet  is  a  stretcher  with  a  canopy  which  will  hold  a 
small  figure."  He  adds  that  "the  design  must  be  executed 
by  the  hands  of  an  ingenious  workman,  and  when  neatly 
japanned  will  appear  very  beautiful."  China-cases  were  to 
be  made  of  "  soft  wood  and  japanned  or  painted  and  partly 
gilt  "  and  one  "  very  proper  for  a  lady's  dressing-room  may 
be  made  of  any  soft  wood  and  japanned  any  color." 

"  The  china-case  when  carried  out  in  the  Chinese  taste 
was  usually  crowned  with  a  pagoda-shaped  dome,  a  treat- 
ment extended  to  any  wings  abutting  on  the  main  or  central 
portion  of  the  body.  The  case  proper  was  glazed,  the  glass 
being  contained  in  lattice-work  of  a  more  or  less  Eastern 
character.  Generally  speaking  these  models  rested  on  legs 
and  feet,  the  decoration  to  which  was  in  keeping  with  the 
rest  of  the  scheme.  From  the  eaves  of  the  pagoda  hung  little 
ivory  ornaments  and  the  general  effect  arrived  at  suited  the 
china  of  the  period  admirably.  It  would  almost  seem  as 
though  Chippendale  had  realized  that  of  all  the  porcelain 
that  had  been  produced  or  were  to  come,  none  would  blend 
with  his  productions  so  happily  as  did  those  of  the  Oriental 
school."  ^ 

Ince  and  Mayhew  also  made  china-cabinets  and  china- 
shelves  in  the  fantastic  "  Chinese  taste  "  of  the  day  which 

1  Wheeler. 


Furniture 

are  so  like  Chippendale's  productions  that  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  distinguish  them. 

The  French  corner-cabinets,  or  encoignures,  of  which  a 
beautiful  example  of  late  Louis  XV.  is  shown  on  Plate 
LXIL,  were  also  of  great  importance  during  the  Eighteenth 
Century  in  both  England  and  France. 

The  Commode 

The  commode,  the  last  transformation  of  the  cabinet, 
was  a  very  important  piece  of  furniture  in  the  Seventeenth 
and,  more  particularly.  Eighteenth  Century.  Its  place  was 
in  the  drawing-room  or  bedroom.  The  commode  is  breast- 
high,  stands  on  four  feet,  and  is  supplied  with  two  long 
drawers.  Exactly  when  it  received  its  name  is  not  known; 
for  it  does  not  appear  in  the  first  edition  of  the  Dictionnaire 
de  r Academic  (1694).  Some  people  like  to  associate  it 
with  the  headdress  called  Commode,  introduced  by  Made- 
moiselle Fontange,  and  universally  worn  at  the  end  of  the 
Seventeenth  and  beginning  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  but 
its  name  was  probably  chosen  to  denote  its  usefulness.  It 
appears  in  early  French  inventories  as  bureau  de  commode 
and  bureau  en  commode. 

It  appears  in  the  prints  of  Berain,  who  died  in  1711 ;  but 
its  name  must  have  been  in  general  use  before  that  time,  as 
it  constantly  appears  in  inventories.  It  1708,  the  room  of 
the  Due  d'Orleans,  at  Versailles,  contained  "  a  bureau- 
commode  in  walnut,  with  two  long  drawers  fastened  with 
locks." 

The  great  French  cabinet-makers  seem  to  have  had  a 
special  affection  for  this  form.  Boulle's  commode  en  tom- 
beau  was  famous  and  the  great  swelling  curve  of  this  tomb- 
like form  also  occurs  in  his  commodes  a  panse  (paunch 
chests). 

138 


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Chests  and  Cupboards 


A  commode  of  Louis  XIV.  period  shown  on  Plate  XXVI. 
is  characteristic  Boulle  work,  ornamented  with  splendid  gilt- 
bronze  mounts.  The  corners  are  adorned  with  bold  and 
beautiful  acanthus  leaves  forming  scrolls.  Three  mascarons 
decorate  the  ends  and  base;  and  the  handles  of  the  drawers 
are  formed  of  lions'  heads  with  rings  in  their  mouths.  The 
gilt  key-plates  are  also  beautifully  chiselled.  This  fine  piece 
is  in  the  Wallace  Gallery  in  London.  The  earliest  com- 
modes are  masterpieces  of  cabinet-work.  The  rarest  woods 
were  employed  in  their  manufacture  and  they  were  enriched 
with  inlays  of  mother-of-pearl,  tortoise-shell  and  marquetry 
of  colored  woods  and  adorned  with  chiselled  and  gilt  metal 
mounts  and  ornate  leaf-shoes  or  carved  and  gilded  feet. 
Handsome  gilded  figures  often  ornamented  the  corners  and 
the  mascaron  or  espagnolette  decorated  the  centre  of  the 
drawers. 

The  espagnolette,  it  may  be  noted,  is  the  name  for  the 
woman's  head  surrounded  by  a  plaited  ruff  which  is  so  fre- 
quently used  for  decoration  by  the  masters  of  the  Louis 
XIV.  period.  A  very  fine  example  appears  on  the  commode 
on  Plate  XXVI. 

The  commodes  of  the  Regency  period  were  more  elegant 
in  form  and  less  loaded  with  ornamentation.  The  chiselled 
bronze  mounts  were  more  restrained  and  stand  out  on  a 
background  of  rosewood  or  amaranth,  or  some  other  rare 
exotic  wood. 

The  metal-mounts  were  beautifully  treated,  especially 
by  Caffieri.  About  this  time,  too,  the  Martins  enriched 
these  commodes  with  their  beautiful  paintings  representing 
Chinese  landscapes  and  scenes  in  imitation  of  Chinese  lac- 
quer. These  panels  were  most  exquisitely  framed  in  borders 
of  pierced  metal,  the  chief  motives  of  which  were  shells  and 
scrolls.  The  slab  was,  as  a  rule,  made  of  choice  and  costly 
marble;   marble,  beautifully  colored  and  beautifully  veined. 

139 


Furniture 

Cressent  made  Commodes  a  la  Regence,  a  la  Chartres,  a  la 
Bagnolet,  a  la  Charolais,  a  la  Harant  and  a  la  Dauphine; 
and  the  "  bow-shaped,"  which  he  describes  as  en  arhalete, 
was  one  of  his  favorites.  One  of  his  commodes  was  de- 
scribed by  the  maker  in  1761,  when  it  was  sold,  as  follows: 
"  A  commode  of  a  pleasing  contour,  made  of  violet-wood, 
having  four  drawers  and  ornamented  with  bronze-gilt  {or 
moulu).  This  commode  is  a  work  (with  regard  to  the 
bronzes)  of  extraordinary  richness;  they  are  very  well 
executed,  and  the  distribution  of  them  very  fine;  among 
other  things,  you  notice  the  bust  of  a  Spanish  woman  placed 
between  the  four  drawers ;  two  dragons,  whose  tails  turned 
up  in  relief  form  the  handles  for  the  two  upper  drawers, 
and  the  stems  of  two  great  leaves  of  a  beautiful  form  are 
also  turned  up  in  relief  to  make  handles  for  the  two  lower 
ones;  you  must  admit  that  this  commode  is  a  veritable 
curiosity." 

This  description  agrees  perfectly  with  the  example  in  the 
Wallace  Gallery.  The  superb  commode  in  the  same  Col- 
lection, by  Caffieri,  is  one  of  the  best  specimens  of  the  ap- 
plication of  bronze  decoration  to  furniture.  With  Caffieri, 
architecture  is  entirely  subordinate  to  ornamentation;  and 
this  fine  piece  is  a  study  of  the  art  of  the  metal-worker. 

The  example  shown  on  Plate  LXIII.  is  a  commode  with 
two  drawers  in  marquetry  of  colored  woods,  the  design  being 
of  floral  boughs  and  birds.  The  handles,  key-plates,  orna- 
mental mouldings  and  leaf -shoes  are  of  bronze,  in  rocaille. 
The  .slab  is  of  marble.  This  handsome  piece,  which  is  almost 
perfect  in  proportion  and  extreme  beauty  of  line,  is  a 
splendid  example  of  the  Louis  XV.  age.  It  is  signed  L. 
Boudin. 

The  elegant  little  Regency  bureau  (Plate  LXIV.)  was 
made  for  Louis  XV.  when  a  child.  It  is  decorated  with 
branch  and  foliage  design  of  copper  on  tortoise-shell;   the 

140 


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Chests  and  Cupboards 


eagle  claw-feet  and  other  metal  enrichments  are  of  gilt 
bronze. 

Sometimes  at  this  period  the  lower  part  of  an  armoire 
was  used  as  a  commode,  just  as  the  lower  part  of  an 
Eighteenth  Century  "  high-boy  "  is  also  used  to-day  as  a 
dressing-table. 

Chippendale,  who  copied  everything  that  was  fashionable 
in  France,  made  commodes  which  he  calls  '*  French  com- 
mode tables,"  "  commode  bureau-tables,"  and  "  buroe  dress- 
ing-tables." In  his  examples  the  drawers  frequently  reach 
to  the  floor.  He  decorated  them  profusely  with  leafy 
scrolls  and  light  dripping  water  effects. 

As  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  comes  to  a  close,  and  the  new 
taste  for  the  straight  line  asserts  itself,  the  low-shaped  and 
bombe  commode  gives  place  to  a  piece  of  furniture  that 
returns  to  the  chest  in  its  rectangular  lines.  The  commode 
now  stands  on  grooved  feet;  sometimes  it  has  doors,  and 
sometimes  long  drawers ;  few  lacquered  commodes  are  made, 
and  marquetry  gradually  gives  place  to  panels  ornamented 
with  a  vase  of  flowers  or  trophies  inlaid  in  the  centre,  or 
plain  panels  framed  in  a  delicately  chased  bronze  moulding 
and  adorned  with  a  central  metal  ornament.  Sometimes 
plaques  of  Sevres  porcelain  are  used  instead  of  panels  of 
wood. 

The  cabinet-makers  and  designers  all  loved  this  form,  and 
lavished  all  the  resources  of  their  skill  and  rich  materials 
upon  its  composition. 

The  commodes  that  Riesener  made  at  the  end  of  the  reign 
of  Louis  XV.  are  of  two  types.  The  richer  form  is  some- 
what similar  to  the  form  of  his  desks;  the  central  part  of 
the  body  beautifully  decorated  with  marquetry  or  a 
medallion  of  chiselled  bronze.  The  very  low  feet  are  encased 
in  a  leaf-shoe,  or  end  in  only  a  scroll.  The  moulding  is 
enriched  with  metal  work  in  the  form  of  roses,  garlands, 

141 


Furniture 

ovolos,  or  flutings.  The  simpler  commodes  are  less  sump- 
tuous regarding  the  use  of  marquetry  and  bronze;  are 
shaped  like  a  massive  coffer;  and  stand  on  very  low  curved 
feet,  which  hardly  seem  to  belong  to  the  piece  of  furniture, 
so  awkwardly  do  they  jut  from  the  corners. 

During  the  Louis  XVL  period  Riesener  made  a  series  of 
commodes  that  are  models  of  taste  and  execution.  In  the 
centre  he  placed  a  panel  of  marquetry  of  wood  representing 
attributes  of  the  field  or  bouquets  of  flowers,  and  on  each 
side  panels  inlaid  in  lozenges,  which  set  off  the  principal 
subject.  Upon  the  moulding  a  row  of  floral  crowns  de- 
velops for  a  frieze,  while  figures  of  caryatides  or  Corinthian 
columns  rising  out  of  the  leaf-shoe  of  copper  form  the  up- 
rights of  the  sides.  Other  of  his  commodes  are  entirely 
covered  with  flowers  and  fruits  that  stand  out  from  the 
panels  of  old  Chinese  lacquer. 

The  commodes  made  at  this  period  by  Heppelwhite  were 
often  shaped  like  half  of  a  drum  and  were  of  satin-wood, 
richly  inlaid.  Sheraton's  commodes  were  also  exceedingly 
rich.  In  a  description  of  a  drawing-room,  when  he  was 
under  the  influence  of  the  Louis  XVI.  taste,  Sheraton  wrote : 
"  The  commode  opposite  the  fire-place  has  four  doors ;  its 
legs  are  intended  to  stand  a  little  clear  of  the  wings;  and 
the  top  is  marble  to  match  the  pier-tables.  In  the  frieze  part 
of  the  commode  is  a  tablet  in  the  centre  made  of  an  exquisite 
composition  in  imitation  of  statuary  marble.  These  are  to 
be  had  of  any  figure,  or  on  any  subject,  at  Mr.  Wedgwood's, 
near  Soho  Square.  They  are  let  into  the  wood,  and  project 
a  little  forward.  The  commode  should  be  painted  to  suit 
the  furniture,  and  the  legs  and  other  parts  in  gold,  to  har- 
monize with  the  sofas,  tables  and  chairs." 

Riesener's  rival,  Benneman,  produced  many  commodes. 
Some  of  these  are  now  in  Fontainebleau  and  the  Garde- 
Meuble ;    their  forms  already  announce  the  imitation  of 

142 


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Chests  and  Cupboards 


heavy  classic  models  soon  to  invade  French  art;  but 
whose  decorative  metal  mounts  rank  among  the  best  French 
work.  One  of  Benneman's  achievements  in  this  line  was  an 
enormous  commode  in  mahogany  in  the  forni  of  the  lower 
part  of  an  armoire  with  terminal  figures  of  women  at  the 
corners  of  gilded  bronze. 

In  the  Louis  XVI.  period  the  rounded  forms  of  the 
commode  gave  way  to  the  straight  line.  Some  had  doors, 
and  others  had  only  drawers;  these  were  called  commodes 
tomheaux.  They  stood  on  short,  upright  legs.  "  Commodes 
were  used  more  and  more  in  furnishing  bedrooms.  They 
were  made  of  four  and  sometimes  fiwt  drawers  one  above 
another;  naturally  the  legs  lost  some  of  their  height,  and 
the  floral  placages  were  supplanted  by  mouldings  garnished 
with  chiselled  bronze,  marquetry  woods  were  replaced  by 
mahogany,  amaranth  and  even  walnut,  but  few  were  made 
of  palissandre.  Two  regular  handles  were  used  on  each 
drawer  on  either  side  of  a  central  keyhole;  the  tops  were 
almost  always  of  marble."  ^ 

Louis  XVL  Style 

**  A  half  moon  "  mahogany  commode  is  shown  on  Plate 
LXVI.  with  three  drawers  in  front  and  a  little  cupboard  and 
drawer  at  each  side.  It  is  mounted  with  gilt  bronze  ornaments 
and  has  a  marble  top.    This  piece  was  made  by  L.  Moreau. 

Commodes  were  proscribed  during  the  Directoire  and 
Empire,  as  they  were  considered  out  of  keeping  with  antique 
furniture.  Their  exclusion  did  not  become  general,  and  did 
not  last  long.  People  had  to  return  to  this  useful  piece  of 
furniture.  The  commode,  however,  never  recovered  its 
former  elegance,  and,  thereafter  was  only  a  piece  of  heavy 
mahogany  furniture  slightly  ornamented  with  metal-work, 

1  Deville. 

143 


Furniture 

which  decoration,  after  a  time,  disappeared  altogether. 
Commode  dressing-tables  and  commode  writing-desks  are 
still  made.  No  piece  of  furniture  is  more  prized  by  the  col- 
lector than  a  fine  specimen  of  the  Seventeenth  or  Eighteenth 
Centuries. 

The  Bureau 

The  word  bureau  seems  to  have  been  used  before  the 
Seventeenth  Century  to  describe  a  table  or  a  counter  covered 
with  a  rough  kind  of  cloth  called  drap  de  bure.  About  1650, 
upon  it  was  placed  a  little  box  with  drawers  supplied  with  a 
flap  to  let  down.  In  other  words  the  Spanish  cabinet  —  the 
vargueno  —  became  the  desk.     (See  Plate  LVIII.) 

The  bureau  of  Marechal  de  Crequi  and  that  belonging  to 
Marie  de'  Medici,  both  in  the  Cluny  Museum,  are  splendid 
examples  of  the  type  of  bureau  that  dates  from  the  first 
half  of  the  Seventeenth  Century.  They  are  of  rosewood 
incrusted  with  copper,  shell,  and  other  metal  in  the  style  that 
Boulle  brought  to  such  perfection.  The  Crequi  piece  dates 
from  1638  and  is  really  a  cabinet  standing  on  a  table  sup- 
plied with  drawers.  The  second  piece,  which  tradition  gives 
to  Marie  de'  Medici,  is  mounted  on  eight  balusters  with 
capitals  joined  four  on  each  side  by  stretches,  and  supplied 
with  two  drawers  on  each  side  of  the  table,  and  surmounted 
by  an  upper  box  composed  of  eight  drawers  and  a  panel 
that  opens.     (See  Plate  LXVIII.) 

There  seems  to  have  been  very  little,  if  any,  difference 
between  the  bureau  and  bureau  en  commode.  The  Duchess 
of  Orleans,  for  instance,  had  a  walnut  commode  three  feet 
seven  inches  long  and  two  feet  wide,  having  three  drawers 
with  iron  rings,  and  the  Duke  had  a  bureau  en  commode, 
three  feet,  five  inches  long,  with  two  drawers  with  iron  rings. 
Madame  de  Maintenon  owned  a  walnut  bureau  inlaid  with 

144 


Plate  LXIX 

Eighteenth    Century   American    Desk   and    Bookcase 

Metropolitan  Museum 


Chests  and  Cupboards 


ebony,  with  seven  drawers  on  each  side,  each  having  copper- 
gilt  key-plates.     (See  Plate  LXV.) 

The  bureau,  however,  was  a  desk,  while  the  commode  was 
more  of  a  dressing-table. 

In  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  the  long  bureau  table  was  a 
favorite  form  of  furniture,  and  sometimes  at  one  end  of  it 
was  placed  a  case  of  shelves,  drawers,  or  pigeon-holes  that 
was  known  as  serre-papiers.  Sometimes  the  serre-papiers 
was  surmounted  by  a  clock.     (See  Plate  CX.) 

The  bureau  or  desk  was  of  great  importance  in  this  reign, 
when  the  roll-top  or  cylinder  bureau  was  invented  or  made 
popular  by  the  Prince  de  Kaunitz,  Maria  Theresa's  ambas- 
sador to  France,  from  which  it  derived  its  name,  "  bureau  a 
la  Kaunitz."  To  this  reign  belongs  the  famous  bureau  du 
roi,  which  most  critics  consider  the  most  beautiful  piece  of 
furniture  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.  It  was  ordered  for 
Louis  XV.  from  J.  F.  CEben  who  died  before  it  was 
finished.  Riesener  completed  the  work  and  placed  his  sig- 
nature upon  it  in  1769.  How  much  Riesener  did  upon  it  is 
not  known.  Before  CEben  died,  however,  the  model  in  wood 
was  constructed  and  the  bronzes  had  been  modelled  and  cast 
by  Duplessis,  Winant  and  Hervieux ;  but  the  piece  had  to  be 
brought  together  as  a  complete  whole,  the  marquetry  was 
not  made,  and  the  cylinder  had  to  be  combined. 

The  bureau  du  roi  is  five  and  a  half  feet  long  and  three 
feet  in  depth.  It  is  made  of  rosewood  and  amaranth,  richly 
decorated  with  Riesener's  best  marquetry,  representing 
flowers,  leaves  and  attributes  of  royalty  and  poetry.  The  or 
moidu  mountings  are  magnificent.  There  are  swags  of 
leaves,  laurel  wreaths,  knots  of  ribbon,  an  open-worked 
gallery  placed  on  a  horizontal  ornament  of  rods  twined  with 
ribbons,  above  the  cylinder  top,  broken  in  the  centre  by  a 
clock  upon  which  two  Cupids  are  playing,  and  on  each  side 
of  the  cylinder  is  a  reclining  figure  of  gilt  bronze  holding 

145 


Furniture 

a  flower  that  is  intended  for  a  candlestick.  The  back  of 
this  bureau  is  as  finely  decorated  as  the  front.  The  whole 
work  is  admired  for  its  form,  its  beautiful  proportions,  its 
fine  lines,  its  simplicity,  its  or  moulu  work,  its  marquetry 
and  the  exquisite  workmanship  it  represents. 

This  bureau  was  in  the  Tuileries  in  1807;  was  removed 
to  the  Palace  of  St.  Cloud  by  Napoleon  III.,  and  from 
there  to  the  Louvre  in  1870. 

A  similar  bureau  was  made  for  Stanislaus,  King  of  Poland, 
and  also  a  copy  by  Zwiener  of  Paris  is  in  the  Wallace  Col- 
lection. (See  Plate  LXVIII.)  Other  reproductions  were 
made  of  this  work  and  many  other  fine  bureaux  also  went 
from  Riesener's  workshop,  large  and  small,  more  or  less 
decorated  with  bronzes,  all  of  which  prove  how  greatly  this 
form  was  liked.  A  cylinder  bureau  of  Riesener's  second 
style,  long  at  Trianon,  is  now  in  the  Musee  du  Mobilier 
national.  This  is  decorated  in  his  favorite  lozenge-shaped 
marquetry  and  ornamented  with  bronze. 

A  superb  bureau  made  by  Dubois,  who  frequently 
worked  from  designs  by  Pineau,  is  in  the  Wallace  Collection. 
The  desk  and  cartonnier  are  in  green  lacquer,  ornamented 
with  chiselled  bronze,  the  feet  being  sirens  and  the  serre- 
papiers  surmounted  by  figures  of  Cupid,  Psyche,  Peace  and 
War.  This  bureau  was  said  to  have  been  a  present  from 
Louis  XV.  to  Catherine  IL  of  Russia.  To  this  period  also 
belongs  the  delicate  little  desk  or  bureau  designed  especially 
for  the  boudoir  and  called  bonheur  du  jour.  It  closed  with 
doors,  or  a  flap,  which,  when  let  down,  formed  the  writing 
table.  Behind  the  flap  was  an  array  of  pigeon-holes  and 
drawers  which  were  generally  lined  with  blue  velvet.  The 
bonheur  du  jour  was  variously  ornamented  with  marquetry, 
or  plaques  of  Sevres  porcelain,  and  adorned  with  delicate 
or  moulu  mounts. 

The  desk  that  became  popular  in  Queen  Anne's  day, 

146 


Plate  LXX 

Louis  XVI.   Secretary.     Mahogany  with  Bronze-gilt 
Ornamentation 


Chests  and  Cupboards 

standing  on  a  frame  supported  on  four  cabriole  legs,  and 
with  slanting  flap  that,  when  let  down  and  supported  on 
slides  or  rests,  forms  the  table  for  writing,  is  precisely  the 
same  form ;  but  it  is  interesting  to  see  how  much  heavier  the 
Anglo-Dutch  writing-desk  or  "  scriptor  "  is  than  its  French 
relative.  Instead  of  the  gilt  leaf-shoe,  we  have  here  the 
claw-and-ball  foot,  and  the  old  cabinet  arrangement  of 
pigeon-holes  and  drawers  is  designed  to  hold  documents  and 
more  serious  correspondence  than  the  perfumed  missives  of 
a  Pompadour  or  a  Du  Barry. 

This,  however,  was  not  the  only  bureau  of  the  period. 
Another  form  is  the  simple  one  as  shown  on  Plate  LXVIL, 
and  another  brings  us  back  to  the  old  armoire  in  two  parts ; 
the  lower  one  consisting  of  a  series  of  drawers  reaching  to 
the  floor,  while  the  upper  part  is  a  combination  of  bookcase 
and  writing-desk  (see  Plate  LXIX.). 

Chippendale  designed  a  great  deal  of  library  furniture; 
and  many  of  his  bookcases  which  follow  the  forms  of  the 
ancient  armoire  are  combinations  of  bookcases  and  desks, 
and  follow  in  the  style  of  their  ornamentation  "  the  Gothic 
or  the  Chinese  taste."  Some  of  the  bookcases  contain  a 
writing-drawer.  One  writing-table  and  bookcase  for  a  lady 
has  "  the  middle  feet  come  out  with  the  drawer,  which  hath 
a  slider  covered  with  green  cloth  or  Spanish  leather  for 
writing  upon." 

Chippendale's  bookcase,  with  glass  doors,  is  much  used 
to-day  for  the  display  of  china.  The  base  generally  con- 
tains cupboards  or  drawers  and  sometimes  the  arrangement 
consists  of  a  cupboard  in  the  centre  with  a  tier  of  drawers  in 
each  wing.  The  broken  pediment  often  surmounts  the 
cornice.  Chippendale's  lattice-like  traceries  for  the  glass 
panes  are  very  decorative  and  very  varied.  He  published  a 
great  number  of  designs  for  these. 

Heppel white  made  desks  after  the  styles  that  had  become 

147 


Furniture 

fashionable  in  his  day.  He  made  combination  desks  and 
bookcases  and  generally  of  mahogany,  with  drawers  and 
internal  conveniences  of  great  variety.  He  also  varied  the 
patterns  of  the  bookcase  doors.  "  On  the  top,  when  orna- 
mented," he  says,  "is  placed  between  a  scroll  of  foliage  a 
vase,  bust,  or  other  ornament  which  may  be  of  mahogany, 
or  gilt,  or  of  light-colored  wood."  He  also  made  cylinder- 
shaped  desks  and  often  used  a  tambour-shutter  with  which 
to  close  them.  In  this  shutter  the  reeds  were  horizontally 
placed,  a  form  familiar  now  in  the  commonest  office-desks. 

Sheraton  was  also  fond  of  the  ornamental  glass  door 
for  his  bookcases,  china  cabinets  and  cupboards;  but,  as  a 
rule,  he  instructed  his  customers  to  place  green,  pink,  or 
white  silk  behind  the  glass.  Many  of  his  bookcases  are  a 
return  to  the  ancient  type  of  armoire  a  deux  corps,  the  lower 
part  being  a  desk  and  the  upper  part  a  series  of  shelves  en- 
closed by  wings,  or  a  series  of  pigeon-holes  and  compart- 
ments. The  example  from  the  Metropolitan  Museum  on 
Plate  LXIX.  shows  this  form. 

Plate  LXX.  and  Plate  LXXI.  take  us  back  to  the  old 
cabinet  on  a  stand  of  the  form  shown  on  Plate  LXIX. ; 
although  both  are  secretaries.  The  first  is  a  secretary  of  the 
Louis  XVI.  period,  made  of  mahogany  and  decorated  with 
medallions  representing  children,  garlands  of  leaves,  rib- 
bons, friezes,  and  cul-de-lampe  of  bronze  gilt.  The  sec- 
ond piece  is  an  Empire  writing-desk  with  delicate  bronze 
ornaments. 


148 


',  ^,  '  '    ' 


Plate  LXXI 

Empire  Secretary 
Metropolitan  Museum 


Ill 

THE    BED 

THERE  still  exists  in  the  selamlik  of  a  Turkish  man- 
sion, the  wooden  house  of  a  Syriac  Christian,  and 
in  the  tent  of  a  rich  sheik,  the  same  bed,  —  a  long 
cushion  laid  sometimes  on  a  wooden  divan,  and  sometimes 
on  a  crazy  framework  of  timber  or  cane.  This  bed  resembles 
the  Egyptian  couch,  —  a  cushion 

placed   on   a    framework,   gener-     Q^^^m^      ^tr-'-i^ 
ally  in  the  shape  of  an  animal,     ^"^^^^      S?"_S# 
whose  back  served  as  the  resting-  Egyptian  couches 

place  for  the  outstretched  body. 

Beds  are  described  in  the  Bible:  that  of  Og,  King  of 
Bashan,  was  nine  cubits  long  and  four  cubits  broad.  Beds 
of  gold  and  silver  are  spoken  of  in  the  book  of  Esther; 
Herodotus  mentions  beds  of  silver  and  gold  which  he  saw 
in  the  temples ;  and  a  bed  with  a  tester  is  recorded  in  Judith 
xvi.  23,  which,  in  connection  with  rich  tapestries,  hung 
about  a  bed  for  ornament  and  luxury,  proves  that  the  ancient 
Hebrews  understood  something  about  the  comforts  for 
sleeping. 

In  the  heroic  age  of  Greece  the  people  slept  on  heaps  of 
skins  or  leaves,  but  in  Homer's  time  they  possessed  beds. 
Some  of  the  sleeping  apartments  of  the  Greeks  were  small 
and  airless,  mere  cells,  in  fact;  but  they  had  sofas  and 
truckle-beds  of  considerable  comfort,  and  at  an  early  period 
the  four-posted  bedstead.  Beds  with  foot  and  headboard 
also  became  known.    A  bedroom  in  a  wealthy  Athenian  villa 

149 


Furniture 

is  thus  described :  '*  Before  the  door  hangs  a  costly  carpet, 
woven  in  variegated  colors  on  a  Babylonian  loom.  The 
bedstead  is  of  maple,  veneered  (some  are  of  bronze,  at  a 
later  period  tortoise-shell),  at  the  top  there  is  fastened  an 
ornamented  board  to  support  the  head ;  girths  are  stretched 
across  to  support  the  mattress,  which  is  covered  with  linen 
and  sometimes  with  cloth  or  leather. 
The  stuffing  is  of  wool  or  leaves; 
a  striped  cushion,  filled  with  feathers, 
forms  the  pillow.  Clothes  like  the 
modern  blanket  are  used,  surmounted 
by  a  splendid  coverlet  from  Miletus, 
or   Corinth,   or  Carthasre,   where  a 

GREEK  BEDSTEAD  ,       •    ,  ,  •      ,  •  * 

brisk  trade  was  carried  on  in  the 
manufacture  of  these  articles  of  luxury.  In  cold  weather 
furs  are  used,  stuffed  coverlets  too,  sometimes  like  the  eider- 
down beds  of  Germany.  The  feet  of  the  bedstead  peep  forth 
from  under  the  rich  coverlet  and  are  of  carved  ivory.  The 
floor  is  covered  with  Asiatic  carpet;  a  table  of  veneered 
maple,  with  three  goats'  feet  of  bronze,  is  placed  by  the 
bedstead,  and  in  one  of  the  corners  of  the  apartment  is  a 
Corinthian  tripod  containing  a  copper  coal  pan  to  warm  the 
room  in  chilly  weather." 

Previous  to  their  subjugation  of  the  East,  the  Romans 
slept  on  planks  covered  with  straw,  moss,  or  dried  leaves; 
but,  when  Asiatic  luxuries  were  introduced  into  the  imperial 
city,  the  wealthy  citizens  furnished  their  sleeping  apartments 
in  a  sumptuous  manner  with  large  carved  bedsteads  and 
couches  of  ivory  or  rare  Indian  woods  inlaid  with  gold, 
amber,  or  tortoise-shell.  The  feet  of  these  were  often  of 
gold  or  silver,  and  the  mattress  was  filled  with  wool  or 
feathers,  and  covered  with  a  soft  material  having  alternate 
stripes  of  white  and  violet  sprinkled  with  gilt  stars.  Blankets 
were  often  used,  purple  being  the  favorite  color ;  and  these 

150 


Plate  LXXII 

Dutch   Renaissance   Carved   Oak   Bedstead  with 
Painted  Leather  Ceiling  (1650) 

Metropolitan  Museum  ,  - ' 


rhe  Bed 


were  richly  embroidered  with  devices  wrought  in  gold. 
Over  them  were  thrown  counterpanes  of  the  most  beautiful 
furs  and  richest  stuffs.  Curtains  and  canopies  were  not 
unknown;  and  sometimes  steps  were  placed  by  the  side  of 
the  bed  for  the  occupant  to  ascend  easily  upon  the  heap  of 
luxurious  cushions. 

In  the  early  Anglo-Saxon  homes  the  bedstead  was  a  rarity 
except  for  kings,  queens  and  other  great  personages;  but 
as  time  wore  on  and  the  country  became 
more  calm  and  secure,  the  habits  of  the 
people  also  corresponded.  The  "  par- 
loir,"  or  talking-room,  was  added;  fire- 
places of  stone-work  or  bricks  were 
made  in  rooms  where  previously  the 
smoke  had  been  allowed  to  escape 
through  a  hole  in  the  roof;  and  bed- 
steads were  draped  with  curtains. 

The  Mediaeval  upholsterer  realized  that 
a  large  room  where  bitter  winds  entered 
through  the  lancet  windows  could  be 
rendered  comfortable  for  sleeping  only  by  the  protection  of 
a  bed  hung  with  heavy  curtains,  and  so  the  curtains  are  of 
the  utmost  importance. 

For  example,  the  "  embroidered  chamber "  of  Jane  of 
Burgundy,  Queen  of  Philip  V.,  at  her  coronation  at  Rheims 
in  1330  was  ornamented  with  1321  parrots  with  the  arms 
of  the  King,  and  1321  butterflies  with  the  arms  of  Burgundy. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  the  word  ''  chamhre"  was  used  to 
describe  the  entire  set  of  hangings  and  curtains  that  adorned 
the  bedroom,  and  these  were  frequently  changed  every 
season  like  the  altar-cloths  and  vestments  of  the  church  and 
clergy.  The  rooms  were  named,  too,  after  the  various  sea- 
sons of  the  church,  or  the  subjects  of  the  tapestry  that 
adorned  them.     Beautiful  Byzantine  tapestry,   with  other 

151 


ANGLO-SAXON   BEDS, 
TENTH  CENTURY 


IRON  BEDSTEAD,   TENTH   CENTURY 


Furniture 

hangings  and  carpets,  was  brought  into  Western  Europe  by 
those  returning  from  the  First  Crusade  (1096-1099),  and 
after  1146,  when  Count  Robert  of  Sicily  brought  home  from 
his  expedition  into  Greece  some  silk-workers  and  established 
a  manufactory  at  Palermo,  fine  brocades  and  damasks  were 

carried  northward  from 
Italy.  During  the  Thir- 
teenth Century  tapestries 
came  into  general  use  for 
hangings  in  private  man- 
sions, and  the  looms  of 
France  and  the  Netherlands 
produced  the  most  wonder- 
ful works.  Subjects  from  Grecian  mythology  and  heroic 
legends  became  as  popular  as  those  taken  from  the  Bible. 

Arras  was  so  celebrated  early  in  the  Fourteenth  Century 
that  the  name  soon  became  generic;  the  Italians  called  all 
woven  tapestries  Arazzi;  the  Spaniards,  Panos  de  raz;  and 
the  English,  Arras.  Hamlet  killed  Polonius  "behind  the 
arras."  Philip  the  Good,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  owned  in  1420 
five  chambers  of  tapestry,  one  of  which  was  of  Arras 
make,  called  the  "  Chamber  of  the  little  children."  The 
canopy,  headboard  and  coverlet  of  the  bed,  were  worked 
with  gold  and  silk,  "  the  headboard  and  coverlet  being  strewn 
with  trees,  grasses  and  little  children,  and  the  canopy  repre- 
senting trails  of  flowering  rose  trees  on  a  red  background." 
Another,  called  "  The  Chamber  of  the  Coronation  of  Our 
Lady,"  was  furnished  with  a  canopy,  a  headboard,  a  bed, 
coverlet  and  six  curtains,  two  of  which  were  worked  with 
gold,  and  the  remaining  four  without  gold. 

The  same  prince  had  also  many  chambers  of  velvet  and 
silk  embroidered  with  gold  and  silks.  Mary  of  Burgundy, 
who  was  married  to  the  Duke  of  Cleves  in  141 5,  had  in  her 
dowry  a  "  superb  bed  of  tapestry  representing  a  deer  hunt." 

152 


>J1>  '!'>         J    t  >>!'» 


Plate  LXXIII 

Early  Seventeenth  Century  Bedstead   {Lit-en-housse) 
Corsini  Palace,  Florence 


rhe  Bed 

The  miniatures  of  Mediaeval  manuscripts  often  give  rep- 
resentations of  interiors,  and  to  them  we  must  go  to  ascertain 
exactly  what  the  furniture  of  this  period  looked  like.  The 
bedstead,  in  nearly  all  cases,  is  nothing  but  a  long  chest  on 
short  legs,  with  a  mattress  and  pillows,  with  the  curtains 
and  canopy  suspended  from  the  rafters  by  cords.  Often 
the  panels  of  the  bedstead  are  of  the  favorite  linen- fold 
pattern,  as  is  the  decoration  of  the  chair  that  stands  by  its 
side.  The  seat  of  this  **  prie-dieu  "  chair,  as  it  has  been 
called,  lifted  up,  disclosing  a  box  in  which  the  devotional 
books  were  kept. 

In  very  wealthy  houses  the  bedroom  was  frequently  hung 
with  splendid  tapestry,  or  embroidered  materials.  A  hand- 
some bedroom  of  the  Twelfth  Century  is  de- 
scribed by  Baudri,  Abbe  de  Bourgueil,  in  a 
poem  dedicated  to  Adela,  the  daughter  of 
William  the  Conqueror.  Tapestry  of  silk, 
silver  and  gold  forms  the  only  decoration  of 
the  walls.  One  set  depicts  Chaos,  the  Crea- 
tion and  Fall  of  Man,  the  Death  of  Abel  and  bed  of  the 
the  Deluge;  another  set  represents  Biblical 
scenes  from  the  time  of  Noah  to  the  Kings  of  Judea;  and 
a  third  set,  scenes  from  Roman  history  and  Grecian  mythol- 
ogy. A  hanging  representing  the  Conquest  of  England 
(much  in  the  style  of  the  Bayeux  Tapestry)  decorated  the 
alcove  in  which  stood  the  bed  of  the  Princess.  The  bed- 
stead was  ornamented  with  three  groups  of  statues,  repre- 
senting Philosophy  with  Music,  Astronomy,  Arithmetic  and 
Geometry;  Rhetoric  with  Logic  and  Grammar;  and  Medi- 
cine with  Galen  and  Hippocrates.  The  ceiling  of  the  bed- 
stead imitated  the  sky  with  the  seven  planets  and  constel- 
lations. The  mosaic  floor  represented  a  map  of  the  world 
with  the  seas,  rivers,  mountains  and  chief  cities. 

At  an  early  period  the  nations  of  Western  Europe  knew 

153 


Furniture 

the  bed  with  headboard  and  footboard,  and  tester  supported 
on  four  posts,  with  canopies  resembling  the  roof  of  a  house, 
and  with  curtains  hanging  from  the  cornice  or  arranged  in 
the  form  of  a  tent.  The  coldness  of  the  houses  rendered 
curtains  a  necessity.  As  time  wore  on,  the  canopy,  curtains 
and  other  furnishings  became  more  luxurious.  The  canopy 
was  often  attached  to  the  wall  and  the  bed  was  placed  under 
it.  The  richly  embroidered  curtains  could  be  looped  back  or 
closely  drawn,  as  the  sleeper  pleased.  By  this  time,  the  bed 
had  become  a  valuable  possession,  not  solely  because  of  its 
handsome  frame  and  canopy,  but  owing  to  its  "  furniture  " 
—  its  down  pillows  and  coverlets,  its  soft  mattresses  of 
down  and  feathers  or  "  flock,"  its  lavender-scented  sheets 
bleached  in  the  dew  or  moonshine,  its  counterpanes  of 
wadded  scarlet  silk,  embroidered  satin,  cloth  of  gold,  or  vair, 
or  miniver,  and  its  heavy  curtains. 

In  the  Fourteenth  Century  the  bed-chamber  was  of  great 
importance,  for  kings  received  their  courtiers  and  granted 
audiences  in  their  sleeping-apartments,  leaving  the  great  hall 
for  festivities  and  ceremonials  of  occasion  and  state. 

Going  to  bed  in  Mediaeval  times  was  something  of  a 
ceremony  for  both  knight  and  king.  It  took  the  latter  quite 
a  long  time  to  prepare  himself  for  the  night.  First,  a  page 
took  a  torch  and  went  to  the  wardrobe  where  the  bedding 
was  kept.  The  articles  were  brought  out  by  the  keeper  to 
four  yeomen,  who  made  the  bed,  while  the  page  held  the 
torch  at  the  foot.  One  of  the  yeomen  searched  the  straw 
with  his  dagger,  and  when  he  found  there  was  no  evil  thing 
hidden  there  he  laid  a  bed  of  down  on  the  straw  and  threw 
himself  upon  it.  Then  the  bed  of  down  was  well  beaten 
and  a  bolster  laid  in  the  proper  place.  The  sheets  were 
spread,  and  over  them  a  fustian.  Over  this  a  "  pane-sheet," 
which  we  now  call  a  counterpane.  Then  the  sheets  were 
turned  down  and  pillows  laid  on  the  bolster,  after  which 

154 


»     t     »    » 


Plate  LXXIV 

Bed  of  the  Marechal  d'Effiat 
Clunv  Museum 


The  Bed 

the  yeomen  made  a  cross  and  kissed  the  bed.  An  angel 
carved  in  wood  was  placed  beside  the  bed,  and  the  curtains 
let  down.  After  this,  a  gentleman  usher  brought  the  king's 
sword  and  placed  it  at  the  bed's  head,  and  a  groom,  or  page, 
was  put  in  custody  of  the  apartment,  which  he  watched 
with  a  light  burning  until  the  king  retired  to  rest. 

Notwithstanding  their  massiveness,  these  beds  were  some- 
times carried  from  place  to  place.  For  example,  a  bed 
belonging  to  Richard  III.  was  taken  by  him  to  the  Blue 
Boar,  Leicester,  the  night  before  the  battle  of  Bosworth,  in 
1485.  Richard  was  slain  in  this  battle,  and  as  the  bed  was 
unclaimed,  the  innkeeper  held  possession  of  it.  A  hundred 
years  later  a  chambermaid  while  sweeping  struck  the  bottom 
accidentally  and  some  gold  pieces  fell  out.  The  bottom,  the 
headboard  and  the  great  swelling  pillars  were  found  to  'be 
hollow  and  full  of  money  of  the  time  of  King  Richard. 
Old  beds  are  rare  and  are  much  prized  by  the  museums  that 
own  them.  The  Louvre  has  a  valuable  Venetian  bed  of  the 
Fifteenth  Century,  a  handsome  though  heavy  composition. 
It  stands  on  lions'  feet,  has  grooved  columns,  and  a  canopy 
bordered  with  a  frieze  of  foliage.  The  carving  is  gilt  and 
stands  out  boldly  from  a  background  of  blue. 

Pictures  and  prints  give  the  best  idea  of  the  Italian 
furniture  of  this  age.  The  beautiful  bed  and  charming  bed- 
room in  Carpaccio's  Dream  of  St.  Ursula  is  a  correct  repre- 
sentation of  a  bedstead  of  the  Fifteenth  Century. 

Peter  Flotner  copied  a  Venetian  bed  from  a  plate  in  the 
Dream  of  Polyphilus  (Venice,  1499),  and  made  the  Venetian 
bed  popular.  This  bed  had  slender  balusters  standing  on 
lions'  paws  and  supporting  the  canopy.  This  type  of  bed 
was  much  used  in  France  during  the  Renaissance ;  but  the 
baluster  columns  were  soon  supplanted  by  caryatides.  In 
the  famous  example  in  the  Cluny  Museum,  dating  from 
the  period  of  Francois  I.  and  represented  on  Plate  XL,  the 

155 


Furniture 

transition  between  the  balusters  and  caryatides  is  very  notice- 
able. The  balusters  at  the  foot  are  very  much  carved  and 
those  on  each  side  of  the  headboard  are  antique  figures,  —  a 
mixture  of  Du  Cerceau  and  Burgundian  carving. 

The  beds  are  in  various  styles,  —  some  are  rectangular, 
have  a  back,  a  dais  supported  by  four  balusters,  and  feet 
carved  in  the  form  of  griffins,  or  chimaerse.  Other  examples 
are  narrower  at  the  feet  than  at  the  head,  and  are  shaped 
like  flat-bottomed  boats.  Three  balusters,  carved  in  the  form 
of  human  figures,  two  at  the  head  and  one  at  the  foot, 
usually  uphold  the  dais. 

The  bed  was  superb  in  the  Sixteenth  Century.  It  consisted 
of  four  posts  and  a  frame,  four  feet,  a  canopy,  a  headboard 
and  curtains.  It  depended  for  its  elegance  very  largely 
upon  its  magnificent  hangings,  though  the  woodwork  was 
carved,  and  frequently  gilded,  painted,  or  inlaid. 

In  the  time  of  Renaissance,  we  find  the  bedstead  of 
supreme  importance.  It  is  carved  in  the  richest  fashion,  and 
is  often  enriched  with  gilding  and  painting;  it  is  also 
adorned  with  marquetry.  The  mattresses,  bolsters  and 
pillows  are  of  down  or  feathers,  the  sheets  and  blankets  of 
finest  linen  and  wool,  for  which  Flanders  is  famous;  and 
the  hangings  are  of  silk,  velvet,  tapestry,  serge,  or  gilded 
leather.  The  Renaissance  bed  is  never  allowed  to  stand  in 
an  alcove :  it  is  far  too  handsome  a  piece  of  furniture  for 
that.  Its  canopy,  often  richly  carved,  is  rectangular  and  ex- 
actly the  size  of  the  bed,  which  is  large;  and  it  is  no  longer 
suspended  by  cords  from  the  ceiling,  but  rests  on  carved  or 
grooved  columns.  It  is  usually  finished  with  a  projecting 
cornice,  variously  ornamented,  and  to  this  cornice  the  curtains 
are  attached.  The  old  box  bed  was  not  extinct  as  is  proved 
by  our  example  on  Plate  LXXII.  This  beautiful  Renaissance 
bed  is  owned  by  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  New  York. 

In  almost  all  cases,  the  frame  of  the  bed  was  a  perfect 

156 


•      •  »       ■ 

•••••  :*•  :• : :  . 
••• :  %:  •; .. 


Plate  LXXV 

Eighteenth  Century  American  Bedstead 
Aletropolitan  Museum 


The  Bed 

square  resting  on  four  carved  ball  feet,  the  frame  hand- 
somely carved.  At  each  corner  rose  a  pillar  to  support  the 
canopy;  the  headboard  was  carved,  and  behind  it  hung  a 
piece  of  tapestry  or  damask  similar  to  that  which  lined  the 
cxely  or  canopy.  Later  in  the  century,  the  columns  were  fre- 
quently enveloped  in  the  same  material  as  the  hangings, 
which  became  so  important  that  the  sculptor  and  joiner  gave 
place  to  the  upholsterer  and  embroiderer.  The  beds  were  so 
high,  or  built  so  high  with  mattresses,  that  it  was  impossible 
to  get  into  them  without  the  aid  of  bed-steps. 

In  the  second  half  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  the  slender 
columns  that  supported  the  canopy  were  supplanted  by 
posts  of  massive  carving.  Sometimes  these  posts  are  gaine- 
shaped  figures.  Caryatides  often  appear  as  columns;  and 
sometimes  slender  pillars  cut  in  the  form  of  balusters,  lances 
or  distaffs.  Some  of  these  are  grooved  and  some  of  these 
are  more  or  less  decorated  with  carving. 

The  bed  of  the  Princess  Palatine  Susanna,  preserved  in 
the  Museum  at  Munich,  and  dated  1530,  is  of  the  slender 
type  (see  Plate  X.). 

The  camp-bed,  or  folding-bed,  that  appears  so  often  in 
the  early  inventories,  was  often  a  four-poster  and  a  very 
handsome  piece  of  furniture.  We  hear  of  a  bed  in  1550  "  in 
the  form  of  a  camp-bed,  painted  in  gold  and  blue  —  the 
canopy,  headboard,  curtains,  coverings,  base  and  four  pillars 
of  scarlet  red,  the  lining  of  the  canopy,  crimson  velvet,  and 
the  fringes  of  red  silk  and  gold  thread  " ;  also  a  camp-bed, 
"  the  canopy  and  hangings  of  green  velvet,  bearing  the  arms 
of  the  owner  and  trimmed  with  fringe  of  green  silk  and 
gold  " ;  also  a  "  bed  in  the  form  of  a  camp-bed,  with  great 
gilded  pillars  supporting  a  canopy  which  was  covered  like 
the  headboard  with  cloth-of-gold  and  crimson  velvet."  The 
coverings  were  the  same,  lined  with  red  taffeta  and  three 
curtains  of  crimson  damask. 

157 


Furniture 

The  magnificent  beds  in  the  Palace  in  Nancy  in  1544  in- 
cluded one  of  cloth  of  gold  and  silver;  another  of  white 
damask,  with  patterns  of  gold  thread,  silver  thread  and 
blue  silk;  another  of  violet  velvet  with  silver  fringe ;  another 
of  black  velvet;  another  of  black  velvet  and  crimson  satin; 
another  of  black  velvet,  yellow  velvet  and  crimson  satin; 
another  of  yeltow  satin  with  lilies  in  cloth  of  silver;  another 
of  crimson  satin  and  cloth  of  gold ;  another  of  cloth  of  gold, 
blue  satin  and  cloth  of  silver;  another  of  gold  damask, 
crimson  satin  and  cloth  of  silver. 

Margaret  of  Austria,  Regent  of  the  Netherlands  and  wife 
of  Philibert  of  Savoy,  owned  in  1523  a  camp,  or  folding- 
bed,  with  hangings  of  cloth  of  gold  embroidered  with  gold 
thread  and  silk ;  also  a  canopy  for  a  camp-bed  covered  with 
cloth  of  gold  and  trimmed  with  a  fringe  of  black  silk  and 
gold  threads;  and  a  canopy  counterpane  and  three  curtains 
of  green  taffeta  lined  with  black  and  a  "  pavilion  as  a  pro- 
tection against  flies,  which  was  made  of  threads  of  grey 
and  yellow  silk." 

Handsome  beds  in  France,  as  well  as  in  England,  had 
special  names.  Among  the  possessions  of  the  Crown  was 
one  called  the  "  England  Bed  "  (lit  d'Angleterre)  because 
the  arms  of  England  were  embroidered  upon  it.  The  hang- 
ings were  violet  velvet  and  cloth  of  gold.  Another  bed  was 
called  "  lit  des  satyrs,"  because  Diana  and  her  nymphs  and 
satyrs  were  embroidered  upon  it,  and  another  was  called 
'"  lit  de  Melusine/'  because  Melusine  was  represented  on  the 
headboard  as  bathing  in  a  fountain. 

The  massive  Elizabethan  bedstead  lasted  long.  It  is  a 
good  example  of  the  style.  Oliver  Cromwell's  bed  and  the 
Great  Bed  of  Ware  was  so  large  that  it  could  hold  twelve 
persons.  The  Tudor  bed  was  superb :  it  was  richly  carved 
on  headboard,  canopy,  tester,  columns  and  panels,  and  the 
columns  or  posts  were  also  a  mass  of  carving.     Often  they 

158 


1350 


Plate  LXXVI 

Louis  XVI.  Bedstead.     Gilt  Frame  with  Tapestry 
Panels  and  Curtains  of  White  Silk 


The  Bed 

swelled  out  into  the  acorn-shaped  bulb  and  sometimes  at 
the  sides  of  the  headboard  stood  terminal  figures  of  men 
or  women,  or  angels  that  were  intended  for  supports  for 
looping  back  the  curtains.  Many  of  these  carved  oak  bed- 
steads were  imported  from  Flanders.  The  sheets  were  of 
the  finest  linen,  the  blankets  were  soft  and  fine,  the  counter- 
pane was  of  marvellous  needlework,  and  there  were  quilts 
of  silk  and  rugs  of  fur  to  make  the  sleeper  luxuriously 
comfortable.  The  richest  curtains  were  of  silk,  satin,  velvet, 
samite  or  tapestry,  and  the  less  expensive  ones  of  serge, 
linsey-woolsey,  or  kidderminster.  Scarlet  cloth  was  also 
used,  and  kidderminster  flowered  green  and  white  was  an- 
other favorite  hanging.  The  favorite  colors  were  red,  green, 
yellow,  and  blue.    White  was  little  used. 

In  Scone  Palace,  Perthshire,  there  is  a  bed  that  Mary 
Stuart  slept  in,  which  is  draped  with  hangings  that  she  is 
said  to  have  worked  while  at  Lochleven. 

Under  the  big  bed,  which  sometimes  stood  upon  a  low 
platform,  the  trundle,  or  truckle,  bed  was  rolled  in  the  day- 
time.   It  was  pulled  out  at  night. 

Early  in  the  Seventeenth  Century,  the  bed  in  which  up- 
holstery had  superseded  carving  had  been  growing  in  favor, 
and  the  lit  en  housse,  as  it  was  called,  became  the  typical  bed 
of  this  period.  It  is  the  one  that  appears  in  Abraham  Bosse's 
engravings  whenever  a  bed  is  introduced  in  the  homes  of  the 
tradesmen  and  school-teachers,  in  hospitals,  as  well  as  in  the 
homes  of  the  rich.  The  framework  of  this  style  of  bed  is 
of  comparatively  little  importance.  The  canopy  or  del  is 
supported  on  four  posts  which  are  carved  or  painted  or 
covered  with  the  same  material  as  the  curtains.  Beneath  the 
valance  and  under  the  curtains  a  rod  ran  for  the  support  of 
the  curtains  which  were  drawn  up  or  down  by  means  of 
cords  and  pulleys.  The  handsomest  beds  were  draped  with 
tapestry,  silk  damask,  brocade,  or  velvet,  often  edged  with 

159 


Furniture 

a  narrow  silk  fringe,  or  a  fringe  of  gold  or  silver,  and  often 
were  trimmed  with  gold  or  silver  lace  or  braid,  and  some- 
times cord  and  tassels.  For  less  expensive  beds,  the  cur- 
tains were  made  of  serge,  cloth  or  linen,  or  cotton  materials, 
or  East  India  goods,  and  lined  with  silk,  or  less  rich  mate- 
rial. The  four  corners  of  the  canopy  were  adorned  with  a 
carved  or  turned  wooden  ornament,  or  knob  called  a 
*'  pomme"  which  was  often  gilded  or  painted,  a  bunch  of 
feathers,  or  a  "  bouquet "  made  of  ravelled  silk  threads. 

A  characteristic  bed  of  this  kind  is  shown  on  Plate 
LXXIIL,  dating  from  the  early  Seventeenth  Century.  It 
is  from  the  Corsini  Palace,  Florence,  and  is  of  the  style  of 
beds  shown  in  Abraham  Bosse's  prints  and  familiar  through- 
out Europe.     (See  also  Plate  LXXIV.) 

Another  typical  bed  of  this  period  was  the  lit  de  baldaquin. 
This  had  no  columns  or  posts,  and  the  baldachin  was 
slightly  smaller  than  the  bed  over  which  it  was  hung.  If  a 
dome  surmounted  the  baldachin,  the  bed  was  called  the  lit 
a  I' imperial e.  The  "  pavilion "  bed  was  probably  very 
similar. 

When  New  England,  New  York  and  Virginia  were  settled, 
during  the  first  quarter  of  the  Seventeenth  Century,  the 
prevailing  style  of  household  furniture  was  early  Jacobean. 

The  most  typical  room  in  the  home  of  average  means 
was  the  hall,  which,  in  general,  was  used  as  a  sitting-room, 
drawing-room,  and  bedroom.  Even  in  the  wealthiest  homes 
of  the  early  settlers  of  this  country,  the  bed  was  scarcely 
ever  absent  in  any  room. 

A  bed  of  the  earliest  Louis  XIV.  Style  was  owned  by 
Moliere  (1622- 1673),  for  among  the  objects  offered  for 
sale  after  his  death,  we  find :  "  A  couch  with  feet  represent- 
ing eaglet's  claws,  painted  a  bronze  green  with  a  painted 
and  gilded  headboard;  a  canopy  with  an  azure  blue  back- 
ground, carved  and  gilded,  with  four  eagles  in  relief,  on 

160 


>    >  s  '  •  '     * 

J       >    '  ,  '    ^     'J  J* 


''^  s 


rhe  Bed 

gilded  wood,  four  knobs  shaped  like  vases,  also  of  gilded 
wood;  the  canopy  draped  inside  with  gold  and  green 
taffeta;  the  valances  of  the  bed,  same  material,  all  finished 
off  with  gold  and  green  fringes.  A  smaller  canopy  within 
the  larger  one,  of  gilded  wood,  carved  to  represent  a  bell, 
draped  outside  with  grey  taffeta  embroidered  with  gold 
twist,  finished  off  with  gold  silk  fringe,  and  lined  with 
Avignon  taffeta.  Inside  hangings  of  the  same  taffeta  with 
fringe."  The  celebrated  actor  and  playwright  also  had  "a 
little  couch  of  joiner's  wood  with  a  border  of  gilded  wood 
and  feet  representing  eaglet's  claws."  This  was  supplied 
with  two  mattresses,  one  of  which  was  covered  with  green 
satin  with  a  floral  design;  and  a  bolster,  similarly  covered. 
This  was  valued  at  loo  livres.  A  similar  couch  with  two 
bolsters,  two  mattresses  and  two  pillows,  all  covered  with 
satin,  was  valued  at  140  livres. 

The  lit  en  housse  continued  into  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. ; 
but  the  typical  bed  in  this  period  was  devoid  of  columns,  and 
was  known  as  the  lit  d'ange.  The  curtains  were  looped 
back,  and  the  canopy,  which  was  the  same  width  as  the  bed, 
was  not  so  long.  The  bed  was  furnished  with  a  headboard, 
but  not  a  footboard.  Squares  of  drapery  that  repeated  the 
same  trimmings  as  the  valance  around  the  del,  or  canopy, 
were  placed  around  the  mattress  to  form  a  lower  valance. 
The  counterpane  was  stretched  tightly  across  the  bed  and  a 
round  bolster  was  placed  at  the  headboard.  Pillows  were 
never  used.  Behind  the  headboard,  a  straight  piece  of 
drapery  hung  from  the  canopy,  which  was  decorated  with 
pommes  or  knobs.  The  lit  d'ange  was  generally  about  11 
feet  high,  6  feet  wide  and  7  feet  long.  The  lit  d'ange  con- 
tinued in  fashion  for  about  a  hundred  years. 

Another  variety  was  the  lit  a  la  duchesse,  which  was  like 
the  lit  d'ange  with  one  exception,  —  the  canopy  had  to  cover 
the  entire  bed  (though  occasionally  we  come  across  a  lit  a  la 

161 


Furniture 


duchesse  with  demi  del).  The  pavilion  bed  and  the  lit  d 
rimperiale  also  continued  in  fashion.  The  King  owned  a 
superb  imperiale  of  yellow  damask,  embroidered  in  silver 
in  a  charming  design  of  leaves,  berries  and  seeds.  The 
trimming  was  a  fringe  of  reddish  purple  chenille  of  the 
shade  that  was  so  fashionable  then,  called  amaranth. 

The  bed  was  always  vu  de  pied,  that  is  to  say,  it  stood  out 
in  the  room  with  the  head  against  the  wall. 

The  Louis  XIV.  Style  crossed  the  Channel  as  the  style 
refugie  (see  page  53). 

The  Marot  bed  depended  upon  upholstery  for  its  splendor. 
The  bedstead  consisted  of  a  light  frame  supporting  a  canopy 
on  the  four  corners  of  which  the 
"  pomme  "  still  held  its  place.  In  this 
period,  it  not  only  consisted  of  a  wooden 
or  gilded  apple,  or  knob,  but  often  a 
bunch  of  ostrich  feathers.  The  canopy, 
curtains,  valance,  and  counterpane  were 
of  brocade,  silk,  satin,  velvet,  chintz,  or 
white  dimity  worked  in  colored  crewels, 
or  worsted.  Three  beds  of  this  period 
are  still  in  Hampton  Court  Palace.  Wil- 
liam's bed,  which  is  about  fifteen  feet 
high,  and  covered  with  crimson  damask;  Mary's,  which  is 
smaller,  and  covered  with  crimson  velvet;  and  a  much 
handsomer  one  called  ''  Queen  Anne's  bed,"  which  is  up- 
holstered in  rich  Genoa  velvet  of  white  ground,  with  de- 
signs of  crimson  and  orange  stamped  or  cut  out  upon  it. 

In  the  days  of  Louis  XV.  the  bed  was  placed  opposite  the 
windows,  with  its  head  against  the  wall,  and,  in  very  wealthy 
homes,  frequently  stood  in  an  alcove  behind  a  balustrade. 
According  to  D'Aviler,  white  and  gold  was  the  choicest 
decoration,  particularly  if  the  wall  behind  the  balustrade, 
where  the  bed  stood,  was  covered  with  blue  silk.    The  bed 

162 


LIT-DE-CAMP,  BY  RADEL, 
1765 


»       >      » 


^3 


n 


a  ^  in 


rhe  Bed 

itself  was  draped  with  curtains  of  blue  and  white  silk,  richly 
ornamented  with  gold  braid.     (See  LXXV.) 

In  smaller  apartments  and  simpler  homes,  the  bed  was 
frequently  placed  in  a  niche.  Sometimes  the  bed  stood  with 
its  head  to  the  wall  (vu  de  pied),  and  sometimes  it  was 
turned  sideways,  in  which  case  a  false  bolster  was  placed  at 
the  footboard  for  the  sake  of  symmetry.  This  bed,  there- 
fore, was  called  the  lit  a  deux  chevets  (the  two-bolster  bed). 

The  boudoir  generally  contained  an  alcove,  in  which  stood 
a  sofa-bed,  or  "  lit  de  repos.''  The  alcove  was  hung  with 
draperies  that  matched  the  wandow-curtains.  Beds  were  of 
many  kinds.  The  great  lit  d'ange  and  the  lit  a  Vimperiale 
still  continued  popular ;  but  the  draperies  followed  the  fashion 
of  the  day,  and  were  looped  up  in  festoons  and  ornamented 
with  choux,  or  cabbage  knots.  Sofa  and  alcove-beds  were 
more  in  demand  than  any  others ;  and  among  them  was  the 
lit  d'anglaise,  which  appeared  in  1 750.  The  lit  a  la  polonaise 
was  another  favorite.  It  had  four  columns  and  a  canopy; 
and  the  latter  was  decorated  with  a  bunch  of  feathers  at 
each  corner  and  in  the  centre.  The  lit  en  ottomane  was  an- 
other sofa-bed,  which  dates  from 
about  1765,  and  which  had  a  dome 
and  curtains;  the  lit  a  romainey 
which  became  popular  about  1760, 
had  a  canopy  and  four  festooned 
curtains ;  the  lit  a  la  turque,  popular 
from  about  1755  to  1780,  was  a  sort 
of  sofa  with  three  backs;  the  lit  a  lit-X-tombeau,  louis  xv. 
tiilipe  and  lit  a  fleche  were  so  called 

because  in  the  one  case  the  curtains  fell  from  a  sort  of 
bronze,  copper,  or  gilded  tulip,  and  in  the  other,  from  an 
ornamental  arrow  fixed  to  the  pavilion.  Last  of  all,  there 
was  the  lit  a  tomheau,  called  in  England  the  single-headed 
couch  or  field-bed,  with  a  slanting  canopy  that  was  sup- 

163 


Furniture 

ported  on  four  posts,  the  two  at  the  head  being  much  taller 
than  those  at  the  foot.  The  lit  a  double  tombeau  had 
posts  of  equal  height,  and  the  curtains  fell  down  the  sides 
in  slants  of  equal  length.  These  sofa-beds  were  smothered 
in  draperies,  gracefully  looped  or  cut  in  points  and  scallops. 
Great  use  was  made  of  tassels.  Colors  having  become  lighter 
than  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  pale  hues  of  blue,  yellow, 
rose  and  green  supplanted  the  heavier  reds,  greens,  blues 
and  purples. 

Chippendale  includes  among  his  plates  Dome-Beds, 
Canopy-Beds,  Gothic  Beds,  Chinese  Beds,  Field-Beds,  Tent- 
Beds,  Couch-Beds,  Sofa-Beds,  as  well  as  independent  draw- 
ings for  bedposts  and  cornices.  His  four-posted  bedsteads 
are  large:  7  feet  6  inches  long;  6  feet  4  inches  high; 
and  5  feet  wide.  A  carved  cornice  surrounds  the  canopy, 
and  contains  hidden  from  sight  an  intricate  arrangement  of 
laths  and  pulleys  by  which  the  curtains  are  drawn  and  raised. 
Chippendale's  pillars  are  always  handsomely  carved;  his 
cornices  are  carved,  gilt,  painted  or  japanned  and  brightened 
with  gold;  and  his  draperies  consist  of  the  most  elaborate 
festoons  and  curtains.  A  long,  tightly-rolled  bolster  is  al- 
ways placed  just  below  the  headboard,  and  pillows  are  never 
used. 

Some  of  Chippendale's  sofas  can  be  turned  into  beds 
when  desired.  He  describes  one  as  follows:  "A  Chinese 
Canopy,  with  Curtains  and  Valances  tied  up  in  Drapery, 
and  may  be  converted  into  a  Bed  by  making  the  front  part  of 
the  seat  to  draw  forward,  and  the  sides  made  to  fold  and 
turn  in  with  strong  iron  hinges  and  a  proper  stretcher  to 
keep  out  and  support  the  sides  when  open.  The  curtains 
must  be  likewise  made  to  come  forward,  and  when  let  down 
will  form  a  Tent."  Another  is  a  "Chinese  Sopha  with  a 
canopy  over  it,  with  its  curtains  and  vallens  all  tied  up  in 
drapery.    This  design  may  be  converted  into  a  bed  by  having 

164 


n 
3 


o 


<     3 

> 
3 


O 


> 

W 

r 
X 
X 


rhe  Bed 


the  Sopha  so  made  as  to  come  forward,  the  curtains  to  draw 
to  the  front  of  the  Sopha,  and  hang  sloping,  which  will  fonn 
a  sort  of  tent,  and  look  very  grand.  The  ornaments  are 
designed  for  burnished  gold." 

The  framework  of  Heppel white  beds  is  much  lighter  in 
appearance  than  Chippendale's. 

According  to  Heppelwhite's  Cabinet-Maker  and  Uphol- 
sterer's Guide,  "  Beds  are  an  article  of  much  importance,  as 
well  on  account  of  the  great  expense  attending  them  as  the 
variety  of  shapes  and  the  high  degree  of 
elegance  attending  them.  They  may  be 
executed  of  almost  every  stuff  the  loom 
produces.  White  dimity,  plain  or  corded, 
is  peculiarly  applicable  for  the  furniture 
which,  with  a  fringe  or  gymp-head,  pro- 
duces an  effect  of  elegance  and  neatness 
truly  agreeable.  Printed  cottons  and 
linens  are  also  very   suitable,   the  ele- 

j  .     ,  r  j.^  i-  1    •    «         HEPPELWHTTE  BED,    1 788 

gance  and  variety  of  patterns  of  which 
afford  as  much  scope  for  taste,  elegance  and  simplicity 
as  the  most  lively  fancy  can  wish.  In  general  the  lin- 
ing to  these  kinds  of  furniture  is  a  plain  white  cotton." 
The  same  authority  contains :  "  In  state  rooms  where  a 
high  degree  of  elegance  and  grandeur  are  wanted,  beds 
are  frequently  made  of  silk  or  satin,  figured  or  plain,  also 
of  velvet  with  gold  fringes,"  etc.  The  Vallance  to  ele- 
gant beds  should  always  be  gathered  full,  which  is  called  a 
Petticoat  Vallance.  The  cornices  may  be  either  of  mahog- 
any carved,  carved  and  gilt,  or  painted  and  japanned.  The 
ornaments  over  the  cornices  may  be  in  the  same  manner, 
and  carved  and  gilt,  or  japanned,  will  produce  the  most 
lively  effect.  Among  Heppelwhite's  designs  were  "  Vene- 
tian, or  waggon-top  beds,"  "  dome-top  beds,"  "  square 
dome-top  beds,"  "  press-beds,"  and  "  field-beds."    The  press- 

165 


Furniture 

bed  is  a  folding-bed  in  the  shape  of  a  wardrobe,  and  the 
field-beds,  *'  single-headed  "  and  "  double-headed,"  are  noth- 
ing more  nor  less  than  the  French  lit  a  tombeau.  "  Sweeps 
for  field-bed  tops  "  received  a  great  deal  of  attention  from 
,the  firm  of  Heppelwhite.  Urns  form  the  finish  to  the  bed- 
posts. An  ordinary  American  bedstead  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century  which  survived  into  the  succeeding  one  appears  on 
Plate  LXXV.,  and  is  of  a  type  familiar  to  many  of  the 
present  generation. 

The  bed  that  the  Marquise  de  Pompadour  had  at  Marly, 
draped  in  a  lovely  silk  of  blue  and  white  stripes,  upon  which 
bouquets  of  flowers  were  also  woven,  anticipates  the  new 
style,  for,  as  has  been  noted,  the  designers  who  were  respon- 
sible for  the  coming  Louis  XVI.  style  were  already  at  work 
in  the  days  of  Louis  XV.  Of  all  beds  in  the  Louis  XVL 
period,  the  alcove,  sofa  and  niche  beds  were  the  favorites. 
Ranson,  Delafosse  and  Salembier  made  many  drawings  of 
beds,  in  all  of  which  drapery  was  of  the  greatest  importance. 
The  beds  called  a  la  polonaise,  a  la  turque,  a  la  chinoise,  a 
tomheau,  a  double  tombeau  and  a  Vanglaise  were  all  va- 
rieties of  the  sofa,  supplied  with  a  decorative  canopy,  two 
bolsters  and  curtains.  The  canopy  became  smaller  and 
smaller  until  the  curtains  were  held  by  a  ring  or  crown. 
The  lit  a  couronne,  as  it  was  called,  long  remained  popular ; 
but  the  lit  a  la  dauphine,  which  was  light  and  graceful,  and 
had  a  dome,  enjoyed  but  short  favor. 

Beds  were  sumptuous  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI.  and 
some  of  them  were  extraordinary  in  price.  The  King  had 
one  bed  that  cost,  with  its  curtains,  82,000  livres,  and  Marie 
Antoinette  had  one  that  cost  more  than  1 30,000  livres. 

A  handsome  specimen  of  this  period  appears  on  Plate 
LXXVI.  The  woodwork  is  carved  and  gilt  and  the  tapestry 
consists  of  garlands  and  flowers  in  various  colors  on  a  white 
ground.    The  curtains  are  white  silk. 

166 


».».»»     » 


Plate  LXXX 

Sixteenth  Century  Chairs 
Flemish,  covered  with  Leather,  Swiss  Sgabello 

Cluny  Museum  Metropolitan  Museum 

French,  Carved  Italian  Folding-Chair 

Louvre  Cluny  Museum 


The  Bed 

The  "  lit  anglais/'  or  "  sofa-bed,"  was  the  most  popular, 
and  there  were  many  varieties  of  it.  In  1773,  M.  Carre,  Rue 
d'Enfer,  has  for  sale  a  yellow  damask  ''lit  a  Vanglaise,'' 
which  is  also  a  sofa,  being  five  feet  wide  and  six  feet  long, 
the  woodwork  of  walnut,  carved  and  strengthened  with 
iron.  In  1785,  a  "  cane  bed,  with  three  backs,  that  can  serve 
as  an  ottoman  in  a  summer  drawing-room  "  is  offered  for 
sale. 

In  a  long  list  of  beds  owned  by  rich  Parisians,  we  read  of 
a  lit  a  hoiisse  of  crimson  velvet  embroidered  with  gold, 
Marechal  Due  d'Estrees  (1771) ;  lit  a  la  polonaise,  of  blue 
damask  and  moire,  Boucher  the  painter  (1771)  ;  lit  a  housse 
of  green  damask,  Madame  Favart  (1772);  embroidered 
muslin  bed,  the  Due  de  Bouillon  (1772) ;  lit  de  perse,  white 
background  with  cut-out  figures,  the  Duchesse  de  Brissac 
(1773)  ;  Indian  damask.  Chevalier  d'Hestin  (1775)  ;  crim- 
son velvet  with  gold  braid,  Due  de  Saint-Aignan  (1776); 
yellow  satin  embroidered  with  gold  flowers.  Marquise  de 
Courcillon  (1777)  ;  five  beds  of  yellow  damask  (one  cost- 
ing 24,000  livres),  in  1779;  and  crimson  and  white  moire,  la 
Comtesse  de  Berulle  (1779).  From  1780  to  1787  we  hear 
of  blue  and  white  damask,  crimson  and  white  brocade,  blue 
and  white  moire,  blue  satin  embroidered  with  gold,  blue  and 
white  brocade,  green  damask,  blue  damask  and  many 
Oriental  stuffs.  The  Marquis  de  Menars  had  a  beautiful 
bed  of  blue  moire  embroidered  in  various  subjects  in  1787; 
the  Due  d'Orleans  a  lit  a  la  duchesse  of  silver  velvet  with 
flowers  and  fringe  of  gold,  and  in  1787  the  financier 
Beaujon,  had  a  dome-bed  hung  with  Gobelin  tapestry. 

The  niche  with  its  draped  sofa-bed  still  continued  popular ; 
but  the  form  of  the  bed  changed.  The  grooved  legs  and 
posts  were  visible  between  the  folds  of  the  damask  or  velvet 
curtains;  the  canopy  was  generally  circular,  gilt  or  painted 
in  light  gray,  and  carved  with  garlands  of  flowers,  rows  of 

167 


Furniture 

beads  and  rosettes,  and  brightened  with  lines  of  gold.  The 
mattresses  were  soft,  and  the  pillows  and  bolsters  were  down. 

As  a  rule,  the  headboard  and  footboard  of  beds  were 
alike  if  the  bed  was  vu  de  face,  that  is  to  say,  placed  side- 
ways against  the  wall,  and  of  unequal  size  if  vu  de  pied 
(seen  from  the  foot),  or  placed  in  the  corner.  It  is  from 
this  period  that  the  latter  kind,  lit  de  coin,  dates. 

The  head  and  footboard  were  left  plain  or  covered. 
Sometimes  they  were  painted  or  lacquered  or  of  gilded 
wood  or  of  natural  wood  ornamented  with  bronze  gilt  or 
moulu  decorations.  The  use  of  veined  woods  gradually  did 
away  with  covering  the  head  and  footboards. 

The  column  seldom  appears.  When  it  does,  however,  it 
is  very  light  (occasionally  of  iron)  and  covered  with  the 
same  material  as  the  curtains.  The  beds  are  draped  in 
muslin,  Persian,  silk,  etc.,  and  trimmed  with  bows  of  ribbon, 
festoons,  etc.,  etc.  The  canopies  or  baldachins  are  much 
smaller  than  the  beds.  Folding  beds  are  not  uncommon.  In 
1 78 1,  a  bed  in  the  form  of  a  commode,  garnished  with 
copper,  is  offered;  and  in  1785  a  French  newspaper  ad- 
vertises "  a  pretty  bed  enclosed  in  a  secretary  made  of  ma- 
hogany, or  moulu  adornments,  seven  feet  high  and  three 
and  a  half  feet  wide.  In  1783  the  Marquis  de  Vigean  has  a 
lit  d'antichamhre  enclosed  in  a  secretary,  and  in  1784  Ma- 
dame Le  Gras  a  "  bed  of  crimson  damask  enclosed  in  an 
armoire  en  secretaire/' 

Sofas  are  so  closely  allied  to  beds  that  it  is  difficult  in  the 
last  days  of  Louis  XVI.  to  tell  the  difference  between 
them.  The  draped  sofa  is  described  variously  as  lit  de  repos, 
chaise  longue,  duchesse,  hcrgere,  a  la  turque,  a  la  polonaise, 
a  la  chinoise;  and  we  even  find  plates  labelled  "  sofa-bed  (i 
Vantique."  The  latter  leads  into  the  styles  of  the  early 
Nineteenth  Century. 

The  Cabinet  des  Modes  from  1786  to  1790  gives  examples 

168 


CAJ 

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The  Bed 


of  furniture  that  merge  into  the  style  of  the  Directoire.  A 
bed  in  the  form  of  a  pulpit,  and  another  called  bed  a  la 
turque  appear  in  the  volume  for  1 786 ;  and  among  the  plates 
in  the  volume  for  1790  there  is  a  lit  de  la  federation.  At 
this  period,  when  the  boudoir  had  become  a  political  cabinet, 
and  the  graceful  pictures  of  Boucher  and  Fragonard  had 
given  place  to  coarse  caricatures  and  prints  and  pictures 
for  the  destroyed  Bastille,  France  reclined  in  antique  arm- 
chairs and  slept  in  "  patriotic  beds."  The  fasces  of  lances 
formed  the  bed-posts,  and  these  were  surmounted  by  the 
Liberty  Cap.  "  She  also  slept,"  to  quote  from  De  Goncourt, 
"  in  the  lit  de  federation  of  four  columns  in  the  form  of 
fasces,  grooved  and  painted  in  greyish  white,  varnished, 
with  the  stems  of  the  fasces  gilded,  as  well  as  the  axes  and 
iron  supports  of  the  canopy."  The  bed  used  during  the 
Directoire  period  was  larger  than  the  Louis  XVL  bed,  but, 
generally  speaking,  it  was  somewhat  low  and  supplied  with 
a  couple  of  mattresses.  In  some,  headboard  and  foot- 
board were  of  equal  height;  in  others,  only  the  headboard 
appeared. 

During  the  Empire,  the  beds  were  of 
mahogany  ornamented  with  bronze  trim- 
mings (see  Plate  LXXVIL),  or  the 
frames  were  painted  and  decorated  in 
imitation  of  bronze.  Some  of  the  beds 
were  square,  some  were  rounded  and 
some  were  shaped  like  a  boat  and  some 
like  a  shell.  Some  of  them  had  pilas- 
ters that  supported  vases,  busts,  or  stat- 
uettes. The  typical  bed,  however,  which 
lasted  long  into  the  century  and  which  has  never  gone  out 
of  fashion,  had  a  headboard  and  footboard  of  equal  height 
and  heavy  scrolled  ends.  This  is  still  known  as  the  "  French 
bed."    The  proper  way  to  place  it  in  a  room  is  to  have  one 

169 


LIT  A  TULIPE,  EMPIRE 
STYLE 


Furniture 

side  against  the  wall.  At  each  end  should  be  placed  a 
bolster  that  follows  the  outline  of  the  scroll.  During  the 
Empire  period,  curtains  were  hung  from  a  canopy  in  the 
shape  of  a  crown,  or  thrown  with  studied  carelessness  over 
an  arrow.  Sometimes  the  heavy  curtains  were  draped  over 
thin  curtains  of  gauze  or  muslin. 

Sheraton's  beds  are  most  elaborate.  They  include  French 
beds,  dome-beds,  canopy-beds,  state  beds,  alcove-beds,  sofa- 
beds  and  field-beds,  all  in  the  latest  styles  in  vogue  on  both 
sides  of  the  Channel. 

At  first  he  follows  the  beds  that  were  popular  in  France 
in  the  days  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  makes  many  varieties  of  the 
high-post  and  sofa-bed.     The  "  sofa-bed  " 
is,  of  course,  the  lit  anglaise  so  fashionable 
in  France,  with  its  two  ends  alike  and  its 
two  bolsters.    "  The  frames  of  these  beds," 
writes  Sheraton,  "  are  sometimes  painted 
in  ornaments  to  suit  the  furniture.     But 
when  the  furniture  is  of  very  rich  silk,  they 
are  done  in  white  and  gold  and  the  orna- 
BED  BY  SHERATON,    mcuts  carvcd.     The  roses  which  tuck  up 
^  the  curtains  are  formed  by  silk  cord,  etc., 

on  the  wall  to  suit  the  hangings;  and  observe  that  the 
centre  rose  contains  a  brass  hook  and  socket,  which  will 
unhook  so  that  the  curtains  will  come  forward  and  en- 
tirely enclose  the  whole  bed.  The  sofa  part  is  sometimes 
made  without  any  back,  in  the  manner  of  a  couch.  It  must 
also  be  observed  that  the  best  kind  of  these  beds  have  what 
the  upholsterers  call  a  fluting,  which  is  done  by  a  slight  frame 
of  wood,  fastened  to  the  wall,  on  which  is  strained  in 
straight  puckers  some  of  the  same  stuff  of  which  the  cur- 
tains are  made." 

The  lit  a  la  duchesse  he  calls  "  Duchess,  a  kind  of  bed 
composed  of  three  parts,  or  a  chair  at  each  end  and  stool 

170 


•*.».  !•.  !. 


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The  Bed 

between  them.  They  are  only  intended  for  a  single  lady, 
and  are,  therefore,  not  more  than  about  30  inches  wide. 
The  chair  ends,  when  apart,  have  the  appearance  of  large 
arm  or  fauteuil  chairs  and  the  middle  part  may  be  used  as 
a  stool.  The  tester  is  made  to  fold.  The  arms  of  the  chair 
part  are  dolphins  and  an  acanthus  spray  ending  in  a  scroll 
ornaments  the  back.  The  duchess  is  covered  with  a  striped 
material,  a  square  or  round  cushion  is  at  each  end,  and  the 
drapery  is  composed  of  two  curtains  falling  from  a  kind  of 
dome  (ornamented  by  a  pineapple  or  pomme)  while  a  scarf 
is  slipped  through  rings  and  forms  a  swag  in  front  of  the 
dome  and  two  festoons  at  each  side." 

In  1803,  Sheraton  notes  that  within  the  past  few  years 
cane  has  been  introduced  into  the  ends  of  mahogany  beds 
"  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  in  the  bed  clothes.  Sometimes 
the  bottom  of  beds  are  caned."  He  also  mentions  that  bed 
steps  are  caned. 

Sheraton  preferred  a  firm  bed  to  the  ancient  one  of 
down,  or  feathers.  He  recommended  a  straw  mattress, 
then  a  flock  mattress,  then  a  feather  bed,  and,  last  of  all,  a 
hair  mattress. 

England  and  France  exchanged  styles ;  for  we  read  in  an 
English  fashion  magazine  of  a  novelty  "lately  imported 
from  Paris,  and  represents  one  of  those  pieces  of  furni- 
ture which  are  consequent  on  the  reciprocal  exchanges  of 
British  and  French  taste :  it  is  an  English  bed  with  corner 
posts  decorated  agreeably  to  Parisian  fancy.  The  frame- 
work is  made  of  rosewood  ornamented  with  carved  foliage, 
gilt  in  matt  and  burnished  gold.  The  drapery  is  of  rose- 
colored  silk  lined  with  azure  blue  and  consists  of  one 
curtain,  gathered  up  at  the  ring  in  the  centre  of  the  canopy 
being  full  enough  to  form  the  festoons  and  curtains  both  of 
the  head  and  foot.  The  elegance  of  this  bed  greatly  de- 
pends on  the  choice,  arrangement  and  modification  of  the 

171 


Furniture 

three  primitive  colors,  blue,  yellow  and  red;  and  in  the 
combination  of  these,  its  chasteness  or  gaiety  may  be 
augmented  or  abridged."  The  curtain  is  edged  with 
fringe. 

The  fashionable  English  designs  of  1816  show  that  drap- 
eries were  of  more  importance  than  the  woodwork.  One  has 
curtains  of  pea-green,  poppy  red,  and  canary  very  gracefully 
arranged;  and  one,  intended  for  a  young  lady  of  fashion, 
has  hangings  of  light  blue  silk  and  a  tender  shade  of  brown, 
supported  by  rings  and  rods  of  brass,  behind  which  the  cur- 
tains were  drawn  up  by  cords  and  tassels. 

In  181 7,  a  canopy,  or  sofa-bed,  has  draperies  of  silk 
ornamented  with  gold  lace  and  fringe;  the  linings  were  of 
lilac  and  buff.  These  curtains,  which  fell  from  a  kind  of 
crown,  were  dark  green.  A  muslin  embroidered  drapery 
was  used  as  a  covering  in  the  daytime. 

In  1822,  an  English  decorator  remarks:  "The  taste  for 
French  furniture  is  carried  to  such  an  extent  that  most 
elegantly    furnished   mansions,    particularly 
the    sleeping-rooms,    are    fitted    up    in    the 
French  style;    and  we  must  confess,  that, 
while  the  antique  forms  the  basis  of  their 
decorative  and  ornamental  furniture,  it  will 
deservedly  continue  in  repute."     He  then 
gives  a  fine  plate  representing  "  a  sofa,  or 
soFA-BED,^MPiRE    Frcuch  bcd,  designed  and  decorated  in  the 
French  style  "  and  "  adapted  for  apartments 
'|pf  superior  elegance."    The  sofa  is  highly  ornamented  with 
Grecian  ornaments  in  burnished  and  matt  gold.     The  cush- 
ions and  inner  coverlids  are  of  white  satin.     The  outer  cov- 
ering is  of  muslin  in  order  to  display  the  ornaments  to  ad- 
vantage and  bear  out  the  richness  of  the  canopy.    The  dome 
is  composed  of  alternate  pink  and  gold  fluting,  surrounded 
with  ostrich  feathers,  forming  a  novel,  light  and  elegant 

172 


Plate  LXXXIII 

Seventeenth  Century  Chairs 
Corner  Chair  with  Rush  Seat  "Low-leather"  Chair 

and  "Spanish  Feet"  Flemish 

Carved  Oak  (1670)  Turned  Chair 

Metropolitan  Museum 


rhe  Bed 

effect;  the  drapery  is  green  satin  with  a  salmon-colored 
Hning  silk  and  lined  with  pink  taffeta. 

The  shape  of  the  sofa  was  what  we  should  designate  as 
Empire.  The  ornaments  that  the  decorator  speaks  of  were 
at  one  end  a  big  horn  of  plenty  filled  with  flowers  and  end- 
ing in  a  bird,  the  head  of  which  lay  upon  the  floor.  The 
other  end  also  terminated  in  a  bird  and  curved  upwards  in 
the  form  of  a  scroll. 

Though  the  French  beds  and  sofa-beds  were  fashionable 
in  the  first  quarter  of  the  century,  the  high-post  and  field-bed 
had  not  gone  out  of  favor.  We  hear  of  mahogany  carved 
bedsteads,  maple  carved  bedsteads  and  down  beds  with  pil- 
lows (1822) ;  a  bureau  bedstead  (1823) ;  four-post  curled 
mahogany  bedsteads  (1823);  carved  and  plain  mahogany 
high-post  bedsteads,  curled  maple  do.  with  screws  and 
improved  joints  (1823);  a  ''superb  mahogany  high-post 
bedstead  with  elegant  cornishes,"  cost  $100  in  1824;  ma- 
hogany and  curled  maple  and  field-bedsteads  (1824) ;  rose- 
wood, mahogany,  plain  and  curled  maple  bedsteads,  with  a 
variety  of  French  patterns  (1825)  ;  French  bedsteads,  ma- 
hogany and  field-bedsteads  (1825) ;  French  bedsteads  with 
curtains  (1825);  rosewood,  mahogany  and  French  and 
curled  maple  bedsteads  (1826);  mahogany  high-post  and 
French  bedsteads  (1826);  and  maple  high-post  and  field- 
bedsteads  (1826). 


173 


IV 

SEATS 


THE  climatic  conditions  of  the  valley  of  the  Eu- 
phrates were  not  so  favorable  for  the  preservation 
of  objects  fashioned  out  of  wood  as  were  the  tombs 
of  the  Nile  valley,  and,  therefore,  we  have  only  carvings 
on  the  monuments  and  some  fragmentary  metal-work  as 
examples  of  Babylonian  furniture.  The  chairs  resemble 
those  of  Egypt  in  character,  animals  and  captives  entering 
into  the  decoration.  The  lion,  bull,  ram  and  horse  fre- 
quently occur  in  whole,  or  part.  Beautifully  carved  foot- 
stools also  appear  with  feet  of  lions'  paws  and  bulls'  hoofs. 
The  feet  of  the  seats  in  the  Assyrian  sculptures  at  Khorsa- 
bad  resemble  inverted  pine-cones. 

The  couches  were  similarly  orna- 
mented and  supplied  like  the  chairs 
with  luxurious  cushions.  A  slab  of 
the  Seventh  Century  B.  C,  shows  the 
king  and  queen  taking  a  meal  in  their 
garden.  The  king  lies  on  a  couch,  the 
head  of  which  curves  forward  and 
serves  as  an  arm-rest.  The  legs  and  rails  are  square  and  the 
feet  conical.  The  decoration  consists  of  human  figures, 
lions,  mouldings  and  scrolls.  The  queen  sits  on  a  high, 
straight-backed  chair  with  curved  arms.  This  shows  where 
the  Greeks  derived  the  custom  of  the  men  reclining  and 
women  sitting  at  meals. 

Netted  or  reed-bottomed  chairs  were  comfortably  up- 
holstered with  stuffed  seats  and  backs  and  richly  worked 

174 


ASSYRIAN  SEATS 


*    •  »  %•  •    • . 
•  •     •     »    •       • 


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Seats 


cushions.  The  seats  sometimes  had  square,  flat,  leather 
cushions  with  painted  decorations.  In  the  course  of  ages, 
most  of  the  textile  materials  have  perished;  but  the  wall 
paintings,  such  as  those  at  Thebes,  show  that  the  chair  cov- 
erings had  brilliant  colors  and  artistic  patterns. 

Lower  Egypt  being  poor  in  timber,  cabinet  woods  were 
imported.  Chairs  of  ebony  and  other  rare  woods  inlaid 
with  ivory  were  fit  objects  of  tribute.  Thus  Ethiopia  seems 
to  have  excelled  in  their  manufacture,  for  they  appear  in 
the  tributes  brought  to  Rameses  II.  by  his  black  subjects. 

The  seats  found  in  the  Egyptian  tombs 
which  were  placed  there  with  other  do- 
mestic furniture  and  utensils  for  the  use 
of  the  mummy  in  the  other  world  show 
that  the  native  cabinet-maker  produced 
work  of  great  excellence  both  in  taste  and 
execution.  The  tombs,  however,  are  the 
abodes  of  kings  and  priests  and  great 
officers  of  the  land,  and  the  chair  was 
the  seat  of  dignity.  The  paintings  on  the 
walls  show  that  the  ordinary  person  sat 
on  the  floor.  In  representations  of  in- 
teriors, such  as  the  house  of  Ey,  armchairs  appear  only  in 
the  dining-room.  Even  at  social  entertainments,  we  see 
ladies  sitting  on  thick  rugs  or  mats  with  which  the  floors 
are  covered  at  all  periods. 

The  oldest  form  of  seat,  found  in  tombs  of  the  Fourth 
Dynasty,  is  a  carved,  wooden  chair  with  legs  shaped  like 
those  of  a  lion,  and  provided  with  a  cushion.  It  was  some- 
times intended  for  two  people,  and  is  found  as  late  as  the 
New  Empire.  Under  the  Middle  Empire  it  was  made  more 
comfortable  by  sloping  the  back  and  lowering  the  seat.  It 
was  usually  high  enough  to  need  a  footstool. 

The  chairs  of  the  kings  were  often  very  high,  the  arms 

175 


EBONY  SEAT  INLArD 
WITH  IVORY,  AND 
FOLDING-STOOL, 
EGYPTLAN, 


Furniture 

were  carved  in  the  forms  of  animals  such  as  running  lions, 
and  the  lower  supports  were  figures  of  bound  captives. 
Very  few  of  these  have  been  found  in  the  tombs ;  M.  Mas- 
pero  did  not  know  of  one,  but  a  specimen,  owned  by  J. 
Howarth,  Esq.,  is  now  in  the  British  Museum.  It  is  a 
splendid  specimen  of  a  royal  seat,  as  the  cartouche  shows 
that  it  belonged  to  Queen  Hatshepsut,  of  the  Eighteenth 
Dynasty.  It  is  apparently  made  of  rosewood,  the  carved 
legs  resembling  those  of  bulls,  with  silver  hoofs  and  a  solid 
gold  cobra  twined  around  each  leg.  The  arms  of  the  chair 
are  of  lighter  wood,  having  cobras  carved  on  the  flat  in  low 
relief.  The  markings  of  the  serpents  are  represented  by 
hundreds  of  tiny  silver  annulets. 

There  are  several  beautiful  chairs  of  the  Eleventh 
Dynasty  in  the  Louvre  and  the  British  Museum.  One  that 
has  preserved  the  original  brilliance  of  its  color  has  its  back 
ornamented  with  two  lotus  flowers  and  with  a  row  of  loz- 
enges inlaid  in  ivory  and  ebony  upon  a  red  ground. 

Camp-stools  were  common;  the  legs  were  sometimes 
carved  like  the  neck  and  head  of  a  bird. 

The  height  of  the  chairs  varied  considerably.  Some  had 
seats  on  the  level  of  the  knee,  and  some  were  much  lower. 
In  form,  the  most  curious  one  resembled  the  "kangaroo 
chair  "of  the  early  Victorian  era.  It  made  the  sitter  assume 
a  posture  with  his  knees  approaching  his  chin. 

The  Greeks  had  several  kinds  of  chairs.  The  thronos  was 
the  seat  of  the  god  in  the  temple,  and  the  seat  of  honor  in  the 
house,  where  it  was  reserved  for  the  master  and  his  guests. 
It  was  a  large  chair  with  low  arms  and  a  straight  back  of 
varying  height.  The  home  thronos  was  made  of  wood; 
those  in  the  temples  and  public  buildings  were  of  marble, 
richly  carved  with  figures  and  garlands.  It  was  accompanied 
by  a  footstool,  either  separate  or  attached  to  the  front  legs. 
The  seats  were  supplied  with  rugs,  skins  and  cushions. 

176 


>         >•>>»<»       J»>       ,J 


>      >       J   > 


Plate  LXXXV 
Anglo-Dutch  Chairs  and  Double  Chair  or  Settee 


Seats 

The  diphros  was  a  low  stool  without  a  back.  It  had  four 
legs,  either  upright  or  crossed.  The  cross-legged  diphros 
had  a  webbed  seat,  and  could  be  folded.  The  legs  often 
were  carved  and  gracefully  curved.  A  separate  cushion 
was  sometimes  added  for  greater  comfort. 

The  klismos  was  a  chair  of  quite  modern  type.  The  four 
legs  had  a  graceful  curve;  the  back  inclined  comfortably 
and  ended  in  a  semi-circular  bar  that  fitted  the  line  of  the 
shoulders. 

The  diphros  with  upright  legs  was  lengthened  to  form 
a  couch  (kline),  which  at  first  had  no  head  or  footboard. 
Afterwards,  in  addition  to  these,  a  back  was 
added  to  one  of  the  long  sides,  and  a  sofa 
was  produced,  the  form  of  which  was  fa-  )p^^ 
miliar  in  every  home  two  generations  ago.  ^  \ 
This  kline  was  made  of  maple,  box  and  other  roman  chair  and 

0-rK  STOOL 

woods,  plain  and  veneered.     The  legs  were 

carved  or  turned,  and  the  framework  was  often  inlaid  with 

gold,  silver  or  ivory. 

The  Romans  had  several  forms  of  chairs.  Most  impor- 
tant was  the  sella  curulis  which  dates  from  the  days  of  the 
kings.  It  was  a  folding-stool  with  curved  cross-legs.  Orig- 
inally, it  was  made  of  ivory  and  later  of  metal.  It  was  used 
as  a  judgment  seat. 

"  The  simple  folding-stool  with  crossed  legs,  the  backless 
chair  with  four  perpendicular  legs,  the  chair  with  a  high 
or  low  back,  and  the  state  throne  were  all  made  after  Greek 
patterns.  The  word  sella  is  the  generic  term  for  the  differ- 
ent classes  of  chairs  comprised  in  the  Greek  diphroi  and 
klismoi;  only  the  chair  with  a  back  to  it  is  distinguished 
as  cathedra.  The  form  of  the  cathedra  resembles  that  of 
our  ordinary  drawing-room  chairs  but  for  the  wider,  fre- 
quently semi-circular  curve  of  the  back,  which  greatly  adds 
to  the  comfort  of  the  seated  person.    Soft  cushions,  placed 

177 


Furniture 

both  against  the  back  and  on  the  seat,  mark  the  cathedra  as 
a  piece  of  furniture  belonging  essentially  to  the  women's 
apartments;  the  more  effeminate  men  of  a  later  period, 
however,  used  these  fauteuils  in  preference.  The  legs  of 
the  chairs  were  frequently  shaped  in  some  graceful  fashion, 
and  adorned  with  valuable  ornaments  of  metal  and  ivory; 
tasteful  turnery  was  also  often  applied  to  them.  Different 
from  these  chairs  is  the  solium,  the  dignified  form  of  which 
designates  it  as  the  seat  of  honor  for  the  master  of  the 
house,  or  as  the  throne  of  rulers  of  the  state  and  gods;  it 
answers,  therefore,  to  the  thronos  of  the  Greeks.  The 
richly  decorated  back  rises  perpendicularly  sometimes  up  to 
the  height  of  the  shoulders,  at  others  above  the  head  of  the 
seated  person ;  two  elbows,  mostly  of  massive  workmanship, 
are  attached  to  the  back."  ^ 

As  an  article  of  decorative  furniture,  the  chair  was  scarce 
in  Europe  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  and  during  the  early 
Renaissance.  It  was  a  seat  of  dignity  and  honor,  the  dis- 
tinctive sign  of  authority  and  lordship,  and  was  reserved 
for  the  aged,  the  master  of  the  house  and  important  per- 
sonages. Its  place  was  between  the  bed  and  the  chimney, 
fixed  with  its  back  to  the  wall.  Its  decoration  was  in  keep- 
ing with  the  rest  of  the  carved  wood- work  of  the  room. 
This  chair,  of  which  many  examples  exist  in  public  and 
private  collections,  had  a  tall,  straight  back  surmounted  by  a 
dais  and  the  arms.  The  seat  was  a  box  or  chest  with  a  lid. 
It  was  raised  rather  high  above  the  floor  and  had  a  step  in 
front  of  it.  This  is  sometimes  called  the  prie-dieu  chair, 
probably  because  devotional  books  were  kept  in  the  seat. 
The  ordinary  seats,  however,  consisted  of  chests  and 
benches;  and  the  chair  proper  is  not  common  till  the 
Fourteenth  Century. 

In  Germany  in  the  Thirteenth  Century,  sexagonal  and 

1  E.  Guhl. 

178 


Plate  LXXXVI 

Windsor  Chairs 
Anglo-Dutch  Chairs 

American  "Colonial"  Three-bar,  or  Banister  Back,  with  Rush 

Seat 
Metropolitan  Museum 


Seats 


CARVED  WOOD  CHAIR, 
SCANDINAVIAN, 
TWELFTH  TO  THIR- 
TEENTH CENTURY 


octagonal  seats,  with  a  leg  at  each  angle,  were  common.  The 
requirement  that  the  seat  of  justice  should  have  four  legs 
dates  from  this  period.  The  Gothic  chairs  are  often  quite 
light  and  graceful,  but  most  of  them  are  of  plain  form  and 
ornamented  with  very  shallow  carving.  In  this  century  also 
originated  chairs  with  light  iron  frames;  the  seat  was  a 
cushion  on  webbing.  During  the  Four- 
teenth and  Fifteenth  Centuries  the  carving 
of  the  high  chairs  was  highly  developed. 

In  Germany  as  elsewhere  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  the  chair  was  reserved  for 
the  lord  or  distinguished  guest,  while  the 
rest  of  the  household  sat  on  benches,  fald- 
stools, camp-stools,  settles  and  chests. 
Splendid  chairs  were  ornamented  with 
gold,  silver  and  ivory  and  inlaid  woods, 
and  covered  with  fine  woven  stuffs  and 
cushions.  The  legs  were  sometimes  bowed, 
massive  and  strong,  and  sometimes  straight  and  slen- 
der. They  were  often  turned.  The  backs  were  higher 
than  the  arms,  which  often  consisted  of  two  posts  joined 
with  leather  or  other  material.  After  the  Tenth  Cen- 
tury, the  legs  and  posts  of  the  arms  and  back  were  often 
turned.  The  back  was  then  often  no  higher  than  the  arms, 
and  the  posts  had  their  ends  carved  to  represent  heads  of 
lions  and  other  animals.  If  the  seat  was  in  the  form  of  a 
chest,  it  was  often  broad  enough  to  accommodate  several 
persons.  The  fronts  and  high  backs  of  these  benches  or 
settees  were  filled  with  bar  and  lattice-work,  and  the  feet 
were  carved  like  those  of  animals.  About  i  loo  A.  D.,  stools 
with  high  backs  came  into  general  use ;  and  about  a  century 
later,  we  find  them  with  woven  material  filling  the  space 
between  the  back  posts. 

The  oldest  piece  of  furniture  is  in  Germany,  in  Salzburg. 

179 


Furniture 

This  is  a  folding-chair  of  wood,  painted  red,  with  heads 
and  feet  of  Hons  of  ivory  decorating  the  side  supports  and 
bas-reHefs  of  ivory  also  forming  a  decoration.  The  seat  is 
covered  with  stamped  leather.  It  was  said  to  have  been  given 
by  Eberhard  II.,  Archbishop  of  Salzburg,  to  the  Abbess 
Gertrude  11.  (1238-1252). 

The  illuminated  manuscripts  show  that  chests  were  largely 
used  as  seats  during  the  early  Middle  Ages.  Of  the  rare 
pieces  of  furniture  of  earlier  date  than  1300,  the  majority 
belong  to  the  service  of  the  church,  and  when  the  big 
carved  chairs  came  into  general  use,  their  decoration  was 
similar  to  that  of  the  Gothic  choir-stalls.  The  chairs  of  the 
Fourteenth  Century  had  carved  human  and  animal  figures, 
Gothic  tracery,  flower  and  leaf  work  and  bas-reliefs  of 
scenes  of  Biblical  history.  At  this  time,  also,  a  new  decora- 
tion for  panels  was  introduced  which  reached  its  highest 
development  during  the  Fifteenth  Century.  It  was  used 
universally  on  the  panels  of  walls  and  furniture.  This  is 
known  as  the  linen  fold,  and  is  supposed  to  have  originally 
been  meant  to  represent  folded  parchment. 

Sauval,  the  historian  of  ancient  Paris,  says  that  in  the 
Louvre  at  that  date  there  were  no  low  chairs,  nor  folding 
seats,  nor  stools,  that  convenient  kind  of  furniture  not  yet 
having  been  invented.  In  the  king's  chamber  and  in  the 
queen's,  there  were  only  trestles,  benches,  forms  and  jau- 
teuils;  and  to  make  these  more  superb,  the  wood-carvers 
loaded  them  with  a  confusion  of  bas-reliefs  and  other  orna- 
ments ;  the  carpenters  surrounded  them  with  panels  and  the 
painters  painted  them  red. 

About  this  time,  however,  a  light,  X-shaped,  folding 
chair  must  have  been  coming  into  use.  It  appears  in  scenes 
of  social  life  in  the  illuminated  manuscripts. 

An  example  of  Italian  workrnanship  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century  is  given  on  Plate  LXXX. 

180 


^    i    >-   -  ,'  > 


Plate  LXXXVII 

Seventeenth  Century  Lit  de  Repos 

Early  Eighteenth  Century  Folding-Chair 

Metropolitan  Museum 


Seats 

Oak  and  cedar  were  the  woods  most  generally  employed 
in  making  these  chairs  which  were  often  gilded  as  well  as 
carved  and  decorated  with  painting  by  the  best  artists. 
Towards  the  middle  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  the  form  of 
this  chair  was  modified.  The  new  model 
was  lighter  and  broader  in  the  seat.  Color 
was  abolished,  and  the  carving  was  sometimes 
accompanied  by  marquetry  and  inlaid  marble. 

There  were  several  kinds  of  low  chairs. 
The  principal  ones  mentioned  in  French  in- 
ventories are  the  chair  with  arms,  chair  with- 
out arms,  table-chair,  three-legged  chair,  chair 

'  .       .  ,  .   ,  ^  ENGLISH  CHAIR, 

with  back  for  sittmg  beside  the  fire;  woman  s      fifteenth cen- 
chair,  child's  little  easy  chair  and  vertugadin      ^^^ 
chair.     The  toitr,  or  revolving,  chair  is  frequently  met  with 
also. 

In  addition  to  the  stiff  and  splendid  seats  of  ceremony, 
there  were  more  modest  seats  for  the  use  of  women  and 
youth  in  ordinary  life.  The  tabouret  was  a  little  low  seat 
covered  with  velvet  or  some  carpet  stuff  of  bright  color  and 
varied  pattern  which  was  used  by  women  as  they  sat  and 
chatted  together  and  did  their  needlework.  It  was  also  called 
a  placet.  Cotgrave  defines  the  tabouret  as  "  a  cushion  stool, 
or  a  little,  low  stool,"  and  the  placet  as  "  a  low  stool." 

In  England,  as  on  the  Continent,  coffers  and  benches 
formed  the  usual  seats  before  the  Tudor  period.  The 
Renaissance  was  slow  in  crossing  the  Channel,  notwithstand- 
ing the  encouragement  given  to  foreign  artists  and  work- 
men by  Henry  VII.  As  abroad,  however,  the  tendency  of 
the  seats  was  towards  lightness.  The  great  panelled  chairs 
gave  way  to  smaller  ones  with  turned  legs,  called  ''  thrown  " 
chairs,  for  use  in  bedrooms.  About  1 530,  the  curule-shaped 
chair  became  popular.  The  seat  was  of  leather  and  leather 
bands  joined  the  back  posts. 

181 


Furniture 

The  high-backed  bench  (see  Plate  III.)  was  merely  the 
chair  enlarged  to  accommodate  several  persons  at  once.  It 
had  a  high,  panelled  back  usually  surmounted  by  a  dais,  a 
coiTer  seat,  arms  and  a  step.  This  high  bench  began  to  dis- 
appear together  with  the  high  and  massive  carved  chair  at 
the  Renaissance,  giving  place  to  folding-seats  and  chairs  with 
low  backs. 

The  dais  of  the  Middle  Ages  called  canapeum  had  disap- 
peared from  the  bench  before  the  close  of  the  Valois  period, 
but  the  name  was  continued.  The  canape  became  one  of  the 
most  important  seats  under  Louis  XIV.  and  his  successors. 
It  came  into  fashion  about  1689  according  to  Furetiere,  who 
wrote :  "  Canape,  a  kind  of  chair  with  a  very  wide  back, 
capable  of  seating  two  persons.  This  word  is  new  in  the 
language,  and  some  people  call  it  sopha!' 

Of  the  French  chairs  of  the  Sixteenth  Centur)^  De 
Champeaux  writes :  "  The  imitation  of  the  Italian  masters 
who  had  returned  to  the  ancient  traditions,  forgotten  for 
many  centuries,  troubled  the  production  of  the  French 
school  for  a  short  time;  but,  in  a  few  years,  the  French 
workmen  had  assimilated  these  new  models,  and  the  art 
of  the  cabinet-maker  shone  in  France  with  a  splendor 
that  it  had  not  known  in  Italy.  The  chairs  of  the  reigns 
of  Charles  VIII.  and  Louis  XII.  (i 483-1 51 5)  unite  the 
evident  characters  of  the  two  currents  running  in  opposite 
directions  and  ending  by  mingling.  Some  of  these  chairs 
show  the  national  style  in  a  very  pronounced  manner,  while 
others  are  very  sensibly  influenced  by  foreign  principles. 
The  latter  belong  to  a  school  sure  of  itself,  that  knows 
antiquity  but  does  not  slavishly  follow  it.  Several  French 
provinces  attained  great  celebrity  in  this  art,  and  produced 
chairs  the  harmonious  proportions  and  delicate  carving  of 
which  can  not  be  too  highly  admired.  Burgundy  and  the 
Lyonnais,  so  skilful  in  the  art  of  wood-carving,  produced 

182 


Seats 

very  remarkable  examples;  but  they  were  surpassed  by 
Auvergne,  which  seems  to  have  made  a  specialty  of  high- 
backed  chairs,  enriched  with  arabesques  and  medallions, 
treated  with  a  supple  and  vigorous  chisel." 

The  escabeau  was  a  stool  for  sitting  at  the  table  only, 
and  always  accompanies  the  table  in  the  inventories.  It 
differed  from  the  tabouret,  which  had  four  legs,  by  having 
board  supports  at  each  end;  the  surfaces  of  these  were 
usually  ornamented  with  carving.  It  was  probably  the 
same  as  the  English  buffet  stool.  Another  seat  of  a  com- 
moner kind  was  the  selle,  which  Cotgrave  described  as 
"  any  ill-favored  ordinary  or  country  stool  of  a  cheaper 
sort  than  the  joined  or  buffet-stool."  There  was  also  the 
sellette,  which  was  a  very  low  stool. 

During  the  Renaissance,  chairs  were  not        ^^^^5ff 
used  by  womankind  to  the  extent  that  they        ^^^^^ 
are   to-day.      Cushions    placed   on   the   floor   ^^^^^^^ 
were    extensively    used    as    seats    by    young    ''^^^^^ 
women  especially.    The  carreau,  or  quarreau,     ^^^^f 
lasted  as  a  seat  till  the  Louis  Quatorze  period.   <^^^^^ 
In  1606,  Nicot  describes  it  as  "a  pillow  of      ^—-^^ 
tapestry  or  other  stuff,  filled  with  wool,  cotton,    fifteenth  cen- 

,       .  .    .    .  .      .  1   '  1  1  TURY  CHAIR 

hair  or  straw,  on  which  people  kneel  in  church, 
and  women  sit  at  home,  busy  with  the  needle  as  they  gos- 
sip."   The  porte-carreau  was  a  little  piece  of  furniture  with 
bulb  feet,  on  which  pillows  were  piled.    Moliere  owned  one 
"  of  varnished  wood  in  the  Chinese  style." 

In  Italy  upholstered  chairs  came  into  vogue  as  early  as  the 
Fifteenth  Century.  Velvet  was  the  favorite  material,  and 
neither  the  style  of  upholstery  nor  form  of  the  chair  changed 
until  the  Seventeenth  Century.  These  luxurious  chairs  were 
seats  of  state  and  not  in  general  use.  They  often  appear  in 
portraits.  For  instance,  Pope  Sixtus  IV.,  by  Melozzo  da 
Forli,  sits  in  one,  as  does  Pope  Leo  X.,  by  Raphael. 

183 


Furniture 

In  the  Treasury  of  Saint  Mark's  in  Venice  there  is  a 
carved  walnut  chair,  with  a  high  back,  which  is  said  to 
have  been  used  as  the  Doge's  throne  from  the  time  it  was 
made,  —  at  the  beginning  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.  It  is 
of  beautiful  proportions  and  beautifully  carved.  The 
decoration  is  much  like  the  marriage-coffers  of  the  period 
and  also  the  anno  ires. 

The  chairs  at  the  beginning  of  the  Sixteenth  Century 
were  painted,  as  they  were  in  the  Middle  Ages,  to  match 
the  rest  of  the  furniture.  The  high-backed  chair  was  the 
same  in  France  as  in  Italy.  The  low-backed  chair  was 
square,  or  in  the  form  of  a  trapeze,  either  with  or  without 
arms,  and  with  a  narrow  or  straight  back. 

During  the  greater  part  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  the 
favorite  seat  was  what  is  known  as  the  Spanish  Chair.  It 
is  a  square  chair  with  high  back,  carved  arms,  turned  legs 
and  connecting  rails,  the  front  bar  being  broad  and  variously 
carved  and  decorated.  The  back  posts  and  arms  usually 
terminate  in  heads  of  lions  or  other  animals.  The  seat 
and  back  were  frequently  covered  with  some  rich  woven 
and  embroidered  stuff,  fixed  to  the  frame  with  large-headed 
nails.  The  more  correct  material,  however,  was  stamped 
Spanish  leather. 

The  faudesteuil  swarms  in  the  inventories  of  the  rich  in 
the  Seventeenth  Century.  Being  upholstered  with  leather 
or  woven  stuff,  it  was  not  carved  except  on  the  arms,  the 
framework  being  decorated  with  painting  and  gilding,  and 
in  Italy  and  Spain  with  marquetry. 

The  Spaniards  of  the  Renaissance  made  considerable  use 
of  the  Italian  tarsia  methods  of  decoration,  but  still  more 
of  marquetry,  produced  by  mauresque  artists.  Spanish 
cathedrals  and  churches  still  possess  numerous  folding-chairs 
of  this  period.  The  ornamentation  consists  of  delicate 
geometrical  patterns  of  inlaid  wood,  bone,  white  or  stained 

184 


o 


3 


Si 


> 
W 

X 


o    O 

a- 


Seats 

ivory,  and  tin.  Similar  chairs  were  made  in  Venice  in 
imitation  of  the  work  imported  from  Egypt  and  Syria. 
■  As  is  the  case  in  other  countries,  we  have  to  turn  to  the 
choir-stalls  of  the  Spanish  Cathedrals  for  the  beginning  of 
the  modern  chair.  It  is  supposed  from  the  Germanic  style 
of  the  figures  and  ornamentation  that  the  earliest  wood- 
carvers  that  worked  in  Spain  were  from  the  Low  Coun- 
tries; but  about  the  beginning  of  the  Sixteenth  Century 
the  carvers  seem  to  have  been  entirely  Spanish.  On  Plate 
LXXVIII.  Italian  choir-stalls  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  are 
represented. 

Large  arm-chairs,  four  square  in  form,  with  the  seat, 
back  and  arms  covered  with  leather  or  embroidered  stuffs, 
were  used.     Low  stools  were  also  common. 

Although  the  Spaniards,  during  the  Renaissance,  fre- 
quently used  tarsia  like  the  Italians  in  colored  woods,  in  a 
great  number  of  cases  their  marquetry  work  resembled 
rather  the  style  of  the  Moorish  artists.  A  great  many 
X-shaped  chairs,  still  in  existence,  are  covered  with  delicate 
geometrical  designs  of  wood,  white  or  tinted  ivory,  and 
even  metal.    Some  are  in  the  Cathedral  of  Toledo. 

The  fald-stool  came  into  vogue  in  the  middle  of  the 
Sixteenth  Century.  Cotgrave  (1611)  defined  it  as  "a  low, 
large  and  easy  folding  chair,  having  both  a  back  and  elbows." 
In  France  it  was  known  as  the  faudesteuil,  and  was  also 
called  chaise  hrisee,  ploy  ante,  a  tenailles,  and  d  molette. 
In  Italy,  it  was  called  a  forbid;  and,  in  Spain,  de  tijera,  or 
scissors,  on  account  of  its  X-shape.     (See  Plate  LXXX.) 

In  French  inventories  it  appears  often  and  in  considerable 
variety  under  the  Valois.  In  1556,  we  read  of  ten  chaises 
a  tenailles  for  seats  for  the  princesses  at  the  table;  in  1572 
a  chair  of  walnut  wood  folding  with  hinges,  and  high  back, 
back  and  seat  covered  with  black  velvet,  the  nails  gilt;  and 
in  1 589,  the  Isle  des  Hermaphrodites  says  that  the  "  King 

185 


Furniture 

and  his  two  followers  sat  at  the  table  in  velvet  chairs  made 
in  the  style  called  brisees.  The  rest  of  the  troupe  had 
chairs  which  opened  and  shut  like  waffle-irons." 

Lyons  was  famed  for  the  caqueteuses  or  caquetoires 
made  there.  Cotgrave  defines  the  word  as  the  "  seat 
whereon  w^omen  used  to  sit  at  a  meeting  where  they  prattle 
together." 

Trevoux  describes  it  as  a  "  low  chair  with  a  very  high 
back,  and  without  arms,  on  which  people  gossip  at  their  ease 
beside  the  fire."  It  came  in  about  the  middle  of  the  Six- 
teenth Century. 

One  authority  says  that  the  chaise  caquefoire,  or  chaise 
perroquet,  described  all  chairs  of  this  age  with  open  backs, 
whether  composed  of  two,  three,  four  or  five  horizontal 
rails  or  carved  or  turned  backs. 

Whether  the  word  perroquet  was  taken 
from  the  old  French  mast  or  whether  it  was 
called  parrot  chair  on  account  of  it  serving 
for  gossip  (caqtietoire)  is  a  subject  for  con- 
jecture. At  any  rate  perroquet  is  used  for 
the  folding-chair.  Saint  Simon  says :  "  Mon- 
"**       ^  seigneur  himself,  and  all  who  were  at  the 

FLEMISH    LOW 

LEATHER  CHAIR,    tablc  had  seats  with  backs  of  black  leather 
tSre?  seven-    which  could  be  folded  up  for  carriage  use 
raEOTH  cen-    and  which  were  called  perroquets."    In  1690, 
we  read  that  "  folding  chairs  which  are  sup- 
ported by  bands  or  strong  canvas,  to  make  them  more  flex- 
ible, are  called  folding  chairs ;  and  when  they  have  a  back, 
they  are  called  perroquet s  and  they  are  used  at  the  table." 

A  good  description  of  this  kind  of  chair  is  given  in 
Catherine  de'  Medici's  inventory.  The  famous  Queen  had 
"  two  little  chaises  caquetoires  covered  with  tapestry  and 
trimmed  with  fringe  of  green  silk  and  fringe  of  gold 
threads,  tufted." 

186 


'»•»»^»»»»  » 


Plate  LXXXIX 
Louis  XV.  Bergere 

Louis  XV.  Gondola  Chairs  with  Cane  Seats  and  Backs 
Metropolitan  Museum 


Seats 

Cardinal  Mazarin  had  in  1661  twelve  chaises  a  perroquet, 
the  frames  of  walnut  wood  and  covered  with  red  crimson 
velvet  trimmed  with  silk  of  the  same  shade. 

The  chaise  voyeuse  seems  to  have  been  introduced  in  this 
reign.  The  side  supports  were  continuations  of  the  back 
legs,  and  the  top  rail  was  covered  with  a  cushion.  The 
back  of  the  chair  was  shaped  like  a  violin,  and  on  the  seat, 
which  was  very  high,  the  gentleman  sat  astride,  resting  his 
arms  on  the  top  rail,  as  he  observed  the  card-table,  play,  or 
the  company.  The  voyeuse  reappeared  with  up-to-date 
alterations  in  the  days  of  Louis  XVI.     (See  Plate  XCI.) 

There  were  several  varieties  of  the  chair  with  a  low  back. 
It  was  made  with  and  without  arms,  with  solid  and  with 
open  back;  sometimes  it  was  upholstered,  and  sometimes 
plain;  the  back  was  sometimes  straight  and  sometimes 
slanting ;  and  the  seat  was  sometimes  square,  and  sometimes 
broader  in  front  than  at  the  back.  These  chairs  that  were 
relatively  light  and  comfortable  in  comparison  with  those 
of  the  preceding  period,  are  numerously  represented  in  the 
great  collections. 

The  typical  Flemish  arm-chair  of  the  early  Seventeenth 
Century  is  shown  on  Plate  LXXX.  The  uprights  are  turned, 
the  double  rails  grooved,  and  the  back  posts  terminate  in 
carved  lions'  heads.  It  is  upholstered  with  leather;  the 
nails  have  large  brass  heads. 

Contemporary  with  this  is  the  French  chair  (Plate 
LXXX.),  which  is  similar  in  form  and  general  construc- 
tion. It  shows,  however,  the  change  from  heaviness  and 
solidity  towards  grace  and  lightness. 

Two  Flemish  arm-chairs  in  the  Louvre  are  represented 
on  Plate  LXXIX.  The  one  with  the  drawer  under  the 
seat  is  attributed  to  the  end  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.  The 
other,  with  caned  back  and  seat,  is  a  remarkably  fine  model 
of  the  chair  that  was  so  popular  in  England  and  the  Low 

187 


Furniture 

Countries  from  1660  to  1700.  The  modern  name  for  it  is 
the  *'  Charles  the  Second  Chair." 

"  The  Flemish  chair  was  imported  in  1690,  was  weak  in 
construction  —  and  is  generally  to  be  met  with  in  a  '  sprung  ' 
condition  as  to  its  back  —  at  the  plane  of  the  seat;  the 
badly  chosen  woods  in  which  it  was  all  too  often  executed, 
have  perished  at  the  hand  of  Time,  aided  by  the  '  worm.' 
In  character,  it  was  ambitious,  but  painfully  hybrid.  Let 
us  examine  one.  Portuguese  scroll-turned  pillars  at  back; 
legs  and  possibly  stretchers  of  the  same  feeling;  Spanish 
feet;  brace  of  under-frame  and  back  splat  Flemish,  with 
Louis  Quatorze  under-framing,  the  whole  upholstered  in 
some  brilliant  Flemish  wool-work.  Replicas  of  this  chair 
were  produced  in  England  by  the  imported  Flemish  artisan, 
but  a  change  came  over  the  scene  when  our  workmen  began 
to  assert  themselves.  Portuguese  turning  below  the  seat 
and  the  Spanish  foot  disappeared,  together  with  the  Flemish 
brace,  in  favor  of  well-ordered  turning,  built  up  more  on 
the  lines  in  vogue  in  France.  Native  wool-work  took  the 
place  of  foreign,  and  construction  received  more  attention. 
Experts  differ  in  fixing  the  absolute  time  at  which  the  tran- 
sition took  place,  but  the  more  chaste  the  leg  and  stretcher, 
the  better  the  building  and  the  more  homely  the  upholster- 
ing scheme,  so  much  the  more  likely  that  we  have  before 
us  an  example  of  English  handiwork."  ^ 

Marot  kept  to  the  term-shaped  legs  and  flat,  curved 
stretchers.  His  chairs  are  large  and  heavy,  and  usually 
have  enormously  high  backs  especially  adapted  for  showing 
off  the  beautiful  materials  that  he  also  designed.  Some- 
times the  bases  were  decorated  with  swags  of  drapery  or 
scallops,  edged  with  braid  or  fringe.  He  often  used  the 
acorn  or  the  flattened  bulb  for  feet. 

Mahogany  was  now  coming  into  favor  as  a  cabinet  wood ; 

^  O.  G.  Wheeler. 
188 


•  ,  >     »        >   «  ,    ,'    I  ■•    i   »  .  »  »     » « 


»  \»  »    »«» 


Plate  XC 

Louis  XV.  Bergere,  Cane  Chairs,  Upholstered  Chairs  and 

Arm-Chair 

Metropolitan  Museum 


Seats 

and  chair  frames  were  made  of  it  as  well  as  of  walnut. 
The  new  Anglo-Dutch  styles  presented  the  following  char- 
acteristics: The  leg  was  cabriole,  ending  in  a  hoof  foot, 
and  later  in  the  ball-and-claw.  Sometimes  the  legs  were 
connected  with  stretchers,  but  as  time  progressed  these 
were  discarded  altogether.  The  solid  curved  splat  was  jar 
or  vase  shaped,  and  there  was  little  carving  except  on  the 
spring  of  the  knee.  There  was  a  tendency  towards  greater 
lightness.  (See  Plate  LXXXIV.)  Two  chairs  placed 
together  formed  the  double  chair  or  settee.  (See  Plate 
LXXXV.) 

The  two-chair  back,  or  three-chair  back,  became  popular 
in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne.  This  form  does  not  consist 
solely  in  placing  two  or  three  chairs  together,  and  adding 
arms,  but  is  subject  to  certain  laws  of  proportion  of  its 
own.  The  back  of  the  chairs  in  the  settee  is  always  wider 
than  that  of  the  arm-chair.  These  two-chair  back,  three- 
chair  back,  and  even  four-chair  back  settees,  appear  in  all 
styles,  from  the  early  jar-shaped  splat  and  cabriole  leg, 
through  those  that  were  pierced  and  carved  in  the  Gothic, 
Chinese  or  Louis  XV.  style.  Ladder-backs  also  occur  in 
this  form  and  shield-backs  in  the  Heppelwhite  period. 

In  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  the  Windsor  chair  came 
into  use,  and  remained  in  popularity  for  about  a  hundred 
and  fifty  years.  It  was  made  of  the  cheaper  kinds  of  wood. 
(See  Plate  LXXXVL) 

In  inventories  of  the  early  Eighteenth  Century  the 
"  crown-back  chair "  is  often  mentioned.  It  appears  so 
often  in  Hogarth's  pictures  that  it  is  now  generally  referred 
to  as  a  "  Hogarth  chair."  (See  Plate  LXXXIV.)  From 
this  the  famous  Chippendale  chair  was  developed. 

Moliere's  inventory  (1673)  mentions  "  six  chairs  of  var- 
nished and  gilded  wood  with  their  cushions  of  taffeta  striped 
with  satin  (35  livres)  ;  two  arm-chairs  of  gilded  wood  cov- 

189 


Furniture 

ered  with  green  satin  (40  livres) ;  and  six  arm-chairs  with 
sphinx  figures  completely  gilded  and  provided  with  cushions 
for  the  seat  and  back  of  flowered  satin  with  a  violet  ground, 
finished  off  with  green  and  gold  silk  fringe  (200  livres)." 

The  lit  de  repos,  or  chaise  longue  (see  Plate  LXXXVIL), 
originated  in  the  days  of  Louis  XIV.  It  generally  had  a 
headboard,  and,  in  some  cases,  a  head  and  footboard,  or  a 
back.  The  seat  was  cane  and  the  headboard  was  carved. 
Cushions  added  comfort.  Sometimes  the  lit  de  repos  was 
referred  to  as  a  canape. 

The  legs  and  feet  of  the  chairs  in  this  reign  are  usually 
cut  in  a  tapering  form,  with  four  sides,  and  ornamented 
with  marquetry,  paint,  or  gilding.  The  straining-rail  is 
usually  present  and  crosses  the  four  legs,  diagonally  form- 
ing a  sort  of  X.  (See  Plate  XXV.)  At  the  point  of 
intersection  a  little  ornament  is  placed.  Some  chairs  have 
a  carved  front  rail;  others  are  finished  with  braid  or 
fringe.  The  arms  frequently  end  in  the  scrolled  acanthus. 
Some  of  them  have  a  cushion  (manchette)  on  the  arm. 

The  arm-chair  (fauteuil)  was  very  general  in  ordinary 
homes.  The  back  was  more  or  less  inclined,  the  arms  more 
or  less  curved,  and  the  seat  was  of  cane,  or  covered  with 
tapestry  or  velvet.  The  carved  frame  shows  volutes,  foliage, 
and  figures  of  children. 

The  canape  and  fauteuil  were  reserved  for  those  of  high- 
est rank.  Prints  of  the  end  of  the  century  show  ladies 
sitting  on  them  at  court  concerts.  The  canape  was  evidently 
a  novelty  of  the  end  of  the  century. 

The  canape  of  this  period  had  a  wide  seat  with  a  high 
sloping  back,  stuffed  seat  and  back,  carved  arms  and  balus- 
ter legs.  It  was  upholstered  w^ith  velvet  or  tapestry  of 
floral  and  arabesque  designs. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  a  new 
arm-chair  appears  which  exhibits  the  dawn  of  the  coming 

190 


5'       >      J        >       J 
J  1       >  1 


Plate  XCI 

Louis  XVI.  Chairs:  Medallion  Back,  Covered  with  Tapestry; 
Lyre-back  Voyeuse;  and  Lyre-back  Chair 


Seats 

style  of  Louis  XV.  The  slightly  curved  back  is  arched, 
and  the  feet  terminate  in  a  carved  leaf,  or  **  leaf-shoe." 
Other  typical  chairs  are  shown  on  Plate  LXXXVIII.  The 
one  on  the  right  is  the  *'  Confessionale.'' 

The  chairs  of  the  Louis  XV.  period  are  charming.  The 
frames  show  beautiful  play  of  line  and  sweeping  curves, 
and  the  arm  of  the  fauteuil  is  strong  and  finely  placed.  The 
little  elbow  cushion,  called  manchette,  gives  an  additional 
finish,  and  is  also  agreeable  for  the  occupant.  The  frames 
were  not  only  carved  and  gilt  but  painted  or  lacquered.  In 
painting  one  color  was  generally  used,  brightened  by 
threads  of  gold  or  white;  but  again  several  colors  were 
used,  and  even  the  painting  known  as  cama'ieux.  In  less 
expensive  homes,  however,  natural  woods,  particularly 
beech  and  oak,  were  more  common  than  painted  frames. 
In  a  drawing-room  suite  smaller  arm-chairs,  called  cabriolets, 
were  now  introduced,  and  these  were  more  arched  and  curved 
than  the  large  ones.  In  the  drawing-room  and  boudoir,  it 
was  customary  to  place  a  small  arm-chair  by  the  side  of,  or 
directly  in  front  of,  the  big  arm-chair,  and  the  cabriolet  had 
to  be  like  the  big  one  in  form  and  upholstery.  The  materials 
were  tapestry,  representing  ^^sop's  Fables  or  a  Watteau 
picture,  rich  velvet  or  damask,  with  floral  patterns  and  silk 
brocaded  in  colored  flowers.  *'  Persian,"  a  kind  of  chintz, 
with  bright  designs  on  a  white  background,  was  frequently 
used  for  the  boudoir  and  bedrooms.  The  material  was 
tacked  to  the  frames  by  means  of  gilt-headed  or  silver- 
headed  nails  placed  so  closely  that  they  touched  one  an- 
other; and  occasionally  a  braid  or  lace  was  used  to  hide 
the  nails.     A  favorite  pattern  was  called  the  **  rat-tooth." 

The  causeuse  is  also  an  arm-chair  of  very  comfortable 
appearance.  In  the  Louis  XV.  period  the  angular  form  of 
the  frame  gave  way  to  graceful  curves.  The  wood-work 
was  gilded  and  carved  in  flower  and  shell-work.    The  back 

191 


Furniture 

and  seat  were  then  covered  with  Beauvais  tapestry,  decor- 
ated with  flowers  and  mythological  subjects  and  country 
scenes  after  designs  by  Frangois  Boucher  and  his  school. 

The  arm-chair,  or  fauteuil,  with  upholstered  instead  of 
open  sides,  makes  its  appearance  in  the  set  of  drawing-room 
furniture.  It  was  called  chaise  bergere.  This  chair  was 
sometimes  called  marquise,  and  was  frequently  accom- 
panied by  the  tabouret,  which,  placed  immediately  in  front 
of  the  chair,  made  it  a  kind  of  chaise  longue.  The  seat  was 
not  very  high  from  the  floor,  and  was  wider  than  it  was 
deep.  The  bergere  became  fashionable,  and  appears  in 
the  designs  of  Chippendale,  Ince  and  Mayhew  and  Heppel- 
white,  in  whose  books  its  name  is  often  printed  as 
''  barjairr     (See  Plates  LXXXIX.  and  XC.) 

The  fauteuils  have  a  wavy  top  rail,  and  curving  arms  with 
cushions  (manchettes)  on  the  elbows.  Two  of  the  period 
are  described  as  having  richly  carved  and  silvered  frames, 
the  seats  and  backs  upholstered  with  jonquil-colored  brocade 
embossed  with  silver  flowers.  The  fauteuil  en  confessional 
is  another  name  for  the  bergere. 

The  gondola  arm-chair  (see  Plate  LXXXIX.)  usually 
had  a  back  and  seat  of  cane,  and  the  elbows  were  covered 
with  a  cushion  upholstered  in  leather.  One  leg  was  placed 
under  each  arm  and  one  exactly  in  front  and  a  fourth  in 
the  back.    A  leather  cushion  was  often  added. 

A  fauteuil  de  commodite  was  also  introduced,  which  had 
a  little  mahogany  desk  attached  to  the  right  of  the  chair  by 
means  of  a  gilded  steel  support ;  and  on  either  side  of  the 
chair  were  two  sconce-arms  for  candles.  The  chair  and  its 
comfortable  cushion  were  often  covered  with  blue  leather. 

Dining-room  chairs  followed  the  form  of  the  drawing- 
room  chairs,  and  were  covered  with  leather,  tapestry  and 
"  Persian,"  already  described  on  the  foregoing  page. 
Leather  was  very  popular  for  covering  seats;    and  yellow 

192 


>  >     >        >   » ,    , 
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'*'^f^4.'5S^r.f%'^ 


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Seats 

and  blue,  as  well  as  red  leather,  were  greatly  in  evidence; 
but  brocade  and  tapestry  were  the  favorite  materials  for 
the  drawing-room.  The  coverings  of  seats  and  backs  were 
put  on  with  braid  of  gold,  silver,  or  a  color  to  match  the 
textile,  nailed  with  gilt-headed  or  silver-headed  nails  placed 
close  together. 

The  first  little  gondola  sofas,  with  two  low  seats  and 
rounded  form,  that  appeared  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  and 
were  popular  in  that  of  his  successor,  were  called  ottomans. 
They  were  usually  to  be  seen  in  the  boudoirs,  richly  carved 
and  upholstered  with  flowered  silk.  Bimont  mentions  them 
in  his  Manual  du  Tapissier  in  1756. 

The  canape  confident  was  a  sofa  consisting  of  from  two 
to  four  seats,  and  at  each  end,  by  the  arms,  another  seat 
at  the  corner  was  rounded  off,  and  then  there  was  another 
arm  or  elbow  at  the  other  side.     It  was  very  popular. 

The  chaise  longue  was  now  sometimes  composed  of  two 
sections;  the  principal  one  looked  like  a  large  fauteuil  and 
the  smaller  one  a  kind  of  tabouret.  The  seats  of  each  were 
placed  so  as  to  touch  each  other,  the  backs  facing  one  an- 
other. The  favorite  seating  was  cane,  and  handsome 
cushions  were  added  at  pleasure. 

Those    with    gondola    backs    were    called 
"  duchess e." 

The  old  form,  called  banquette,  had  not 
gone  out  of  fashion.     This  name  occurs  as 
early  as  1 732 ;   and  as  late  as  1 770  the  King 
owned  "  nine  banquettes  covered  with  crim-    german 
son  plush,  six  feet  long  and  seventeen  inches       ^^^^'  ^^^° 
wide,  to  be  used  at  the  grand  convert  J'  and  "  four  ban- 
quettes, each  having  two  elbows,  covered  with  blue  velvet, 
trimmed  with  gold  braid  nailed  on  with  gilt  nails,  the  wood 
painted  blue,  picked  out  with  gold." 

In  1736  we  hear  of  "  two  banquettes  of  beech-wood, 

193 


CHAIR- 


Furniture 

delicately  carved  and  varnished,  24  inches  long,  14  inches 
deep,  and  15  inches  high,  with  seats  of  cane,  each  supplied 
with  a  hair  cushion,  covered  on  both  sides  with  crimson 
damask,  tufted." 

At  the  end  of  the  Louis  XV.  period  many  of  the  chairs 
and  settees  show  transitional  features  in  the  legs,  frame- 
work and  character  of  the  ornamentation.  The  curves  be- 
come more  restrained,  the  straight  line  becomes  more  in- 
sistent, and  the  tapering  grooved  leg  supplants  the  sweeping 
cabriole.  In  the  silk  covering,  too,  the  stripe  begins  to  take 
the  place  of  the  floral  brocades  and  damasks ;  and  garlands, 
shepherds'  crooks,  shepherdesses'  hats,  knots  of  ribbon  and 
pastoral  attributes  appear  in  the  tapestries  that  cover  the 
seats. 

During  the  transitional  period  between  Louis  XV.  and 
Louis  XVI.  the  backs  of  the  chairs  assume  the  medallion 
shape.  The  leaf -shoe  is  also  removed  from 
the  foot  by  degrees,  and  the  feet  are  of  a 
console  shape,  ending  in  a  scroll  or  a  shell 
or  a  peg-top.  The  curves  entirely  disappear. 
The  next  change  in  the  back  of  the  chair 
frame  is  that  of  a  sort  of  projecting  square, 
BUREAU,  BY  then  comes  the  shape  of  the  handle  of  a  bas- 
ket, and  finally  a  perfect  square  between  two 
straight  columns,  each  of  which  is  terminated  by  a  steeple 
ornament.  The  handsomest  chairs  are  richly  carved, 
though  low  relief  is  preferred.  The  ornament  in  the 
centre  of  the  top  rail  is  a  bow  of  ribbon,  or  a  bouquet, 
or  garland,  of  flowers,  or  leaves.  The  frames  are  made 
of  mahogany  or  walnut,  but  more  popular  is  a  plain  wood 
carved  and  gilded,  or  painted,  to  suit  the  taste  of  the  in- 
dividual. Some  mahogany  and  rosewood  arm-chairs  are 
brightened  by  gilded  bronze  ornaments.  Many  arm-chairs 
have  removable  cushions  that  fit  into  the  frame  of  the  chair. 

194 


FAUTEUIL 
BUREA' 
LALONDE 


J  J  >  .  J       ■) 


5     >      >  '>• 


Plate  XCIII 

Eighteenth  Century  Ladder-back  Chairs 


V 


Seats 

Occasionally  the  cushions  are  tufted.  Cushions  are  also 
round,  half  round,  or  much  flattened.  Small  arm-chairs  are 
still  called  cabriolets.  The  tapestries  of  the  Gobelins,  Beau- 
vais  and  Aubusson  manufactories  were  in  high  estimation  as 
coverings  for  seats  and  subjects  from  Boucher,  Fragonard 
and  other  artists  of  the  period  were  reproduced  on  light 
backgrounds.  Shepherds,  shepherdesses,  children  at  play, 
garlands,  baskets  and  vases  of  flowers,  knots  of  ribbon, 
Cupids,  quivers  hidden  among  blossoms,  birds  and  bird- 
cages, and  many  pastoral  subjects  and  trophies  were  used 
alike  in  tapestries  and  in  the  figured  and  embroidered  satins 
that  supplanted  the  old  figured  damask.  Then  the  stripe  be- 
came the  rage,  although  it  had  enjoyed  a  slight  vogue  in  the 
days  of  Louis  XV.,  when  it  was  particularly  favored  by 
Madame  de  Pompadour  and  also  Madame  Du  Barry.  Wind- 
ing ribbons,  alternating  with  straight  stripes,  spangled  with 
flowers,  was  a  design  called  Dauphine,  introduced  at  the 
time  of  Marie  Antoinette's  marriage  with  the  Dauphin  in 
1770.  Another  favorite  device  was  the  feather  which  was 
also  combined  with  the  stripe.  In  every  design  the  stripe 
appeared.  At  first  it  was  hidden  under  branches  and 
flowers  and  ribbons  and  feathers ;  but  at  length  it  triumphed 
over  all  other  ornaments.  All  other  designs  were  ignored 
and  the  stripe  reigned  alone.  In  1788  Mercier  wrote: 
"  Everybody  in  the  King's  cabinet  looks  like  a  zebra." 

The  stripe  appeared,  of  course,  on  all  the  velvets,  silks, 
satins  and  chintzes  used  for  furniture  covering.  Braids 
were  popular  and  tassels  and  ball- fringe  much  used. 

Chairs  that  were  not  stuffed  in  the  back  were  often  cut 
in  the  form  of  a  lyre.  Draped  arm-chairs  were  called 
fauteuils  a  la  polonaise,  a  la  turque,  a  la  chinoise,  and  prob- 
ably matched  the  beds  and  sofas  of  the  same  name.  Other 
arm-chairs  had  great  wings  that  extended  around  the  sides, 
making  the  chair  almost  square  in   form.     The  fauteuil 

195 


Furniture 


hergere,  with  straighter  lines  than  of  yore,  and  a  more  ag- 
gressive arm,  still  holds  its  place  in  the  drawing-room,  and  is 
sometimes  also  called  fauteuil  confessional.  It  was  often 
supplied  with  an  additional  cushion  for  the  seat.  At  this 
time  cushions  of  both  seat  and  back  were  frequently 
stuffed  with  hair  instead  of  feathers  or  down,  and  were 
sometimes  also  tufted. 

A  peculiar  chair,  resembling  the  voyeuse  (see  Plate 
XCL),  now  appeared.     It  was  called  the  voyelle. 

The  back  was  a  lyre  reaching  from 
the  seat  to  the  top  rail.  The  latter  was 
stuffed.  Men  sat  astride  of  the  seat, 
resting  their  arms  on  the  rail,  looking 
over  the  back  of  the  chair.  The  voy- 
elle was  a  sort  of  lounging  chair  and 
had  the  advantage  of  showing  off  the 
immensely  long  coat-tails  affected  by 
the  "  Incroyables." 

In  the  French  dining-room  the 
frames  of  the  chairs  were  of  oak  or  mahogany,  with  turned 
bars  or  carved  splats.  Sometimes  the  frames  were  painted. 
The  removable  cushions  were  covered  with  velvet  or  leather, 
or  perhaps  they  had  cane  or  rush  seats. 

Arm-chairs  for  the  library  desks  were  of  mahogany  or 
painted  wood,  of  gondola  form,  and,  as  the  back,  and  seats 
were  frequently  of  cane,  were  rendered  more  comfortable 
with  extra  cushions. 

The  sofa,  or  canape,  followed  the  style  of  the  chairs; 
they  were  of  the  gondola,  medallion,  or  basket  form,  and 
a  little  lower  and  deeper  than  those  of  the  Louis  XV. 
period.  Sometimes  they  had  high  wings  at  each  end, 
which  gave  them  a  cosy  appearance,  and  sometimes  they 
had  an  open  space  under  each  arm.  The  frames  were,  like 
the  chairs,  of  carved  and  gilded  wood,  or  painted  and  gilt 

196 


VOYELLE,      FROM     FON- 
TAINEBLEAU 


»;  .  \.  .  ... 


►5*    ^ 

a      > 

o  G 


Seats 

and  covered  with  tapestry,  or  with  silk,  or  satin,  or  damask. 
The  small,  low  and  rounded  sofa  was  called  ottomane,  and 
a  certain  kind  of  large  sofa  was  called  ottomane  a  la  reine. 
With  this,  a  square  or  round  bolster  was  used.  To  this 
period  belong  many  varieties  of  the  draped  sofa.  We  find 
lit  de  repos,  chaise  longue,  diichesse,  hergere,  d,  la  turque,  a 
la  polonaise,  a  la  chinoise,  and  others,  with  and  without 
canopies,  so  that  the  sofa  merges  into  the  bed,  and  the  bed 
into  the  sofa.  We  also  find  plates  labelled  sofa  bed  a 
['antique,  a  model  very  like  the  scroll-end  sofas  of  the  early 
Nineteenth  Century. 

The  diichesse  is  still  a  combination  of  arm-chair  and 
stool;  and  is  often  made  in  three  instead  of  two  divisions. 

The  diichesse,  the  ottomane  en  gondole,  and  several 
varieties  of  the  sofa-bed,  appear  in  the  boudoirs  of  the 
period.  The  sofa  with  three  backs  or  sofa  pommier,  which 
became  of  such  importance  during  the  Directoire  and  Em- 
pire, now  makes  its  advent. 

Chippendale  made  Gothic  chairs,  French 
chairs,  Chinese  chairs,  ribbon-back  chairs, 
and  chairs  for  the  hall  and  the  garden. 
He  particularly  excelled  as  an  artist  in  his 
use  of  the  ribbon,  tying  and  twisting  it  in 
a  very  charming  manner.  The  majority  chippendale  chair- 
of  the  "  Chippendale  chairs "  met  with 
to-day  have  straight,  square  legs  or  cabriole  ball-and-claw ; 
but  his  designs  show  many  varieties,  among  which  are  the 
cabriole,  ending  in  a  kind  of  scroll,  resting  on  a  leaf;  the 
straight  leg  carved  with  husks;  the  leg  composed  of  reeds 
wrapped  with  ribbon  (anticipating  the  Louis  XVI.  Style, 
probably  taken  from  some  up-to-date  French  designer), 
leg  ending  in  a  hoof  with  ram's  head  on  spring  of  cabriole 
knee,  lion's  claw  on  a  flattened  ball,  and  leg  on  which  a 
dragon  is  climbing. 

197 


Furniture 


CHIPPENDALE  CHAIR- 
BACK,   1754 


Ribbon-back  chairs  are,  perhaps,  Chippendale's  favorite- 
He  says  of  them :  "  The  length  of  the  front  leg  is  19  inches; 
the  rail  of  the  seat  (upholstered  with  small  nails  touching 
one  another),  is  22.yA,  inches;  the  seat  is  18  inches  square; 
and  the  back,  from  seat  to  top  rail,  2  or  23 
inches  high."  Chippendale  adds :  "  If  these 
seats  are  covered  with  red  morocco,  they 
will  have  a  fine  effect." 

A  handsome  ribbon-back  chair  appears 
on  Plate  XCV.  Entwined  ribbons  and 
reversed  scrolls  form  the  splat;  and  in 
the  centre  of  the  top  rail  there  is  a  large 
quatrefoil  ribbon,  from  which  hangs  a  cord  and  tassel.  The 
legs  are  square,  decorated  with  sunk  panels  carved  with 
scrolls  and  rosettes  at  the  corners.  The  front  of  the  seat 
is  slightly  serpentine,  and  the  cover  is  of  needlework, 
studded  with  a  double  row  of  brass  nails. 
■'  Chippendale  is  very  particular  in  giving  directions  for 
the  proper  upholstery.  Thus,  for  a  set  of  eighteen  chairs, 
he  says :  \ 

"  The  seats  look  best  when  stuffed  over  the  rails  arid 
have  a  brass  border  neatly  chased ;  but  are  most  commonly 
done  with  brass  nails  in  one  or  two  rows; 
and  sometimes  the  nails  are  done  to  imitate 
fretwork.  They  are  usually  covered  with 
the  same  stuff  as  the  window  curtains. 
The  height  of  the  back  seldom  exceeds 
twenty-two  inches  above  the  seats." 

Again  for  French  chairs  with  elbows: 
''  The  little  moulding,  round  the  bottom 
of  the  edge  of  the  rails,  has  a  good  effect.  The  backs  and 
seats  are  stuffed  and  covered  with  Spanish  leather  or 
damask,  etc.,  and  nailed  with  brass  nails.  The  seat  is  27 
inches  wide  in  front,  22  inches  from  the  front  to  the  back, 

198 


CHIPPENDALE  CHAIR- 
BACK,   1754 


•••  •-  •  •    • 

•     •• 

•  •• 


•••  •  ••  ••  •' 


Seats 

and  23  inches  wide  behind;  the  height  of  the  back  is  25 
inches,  and  the  height  of  the  seat  14^  including  casters." 

Chippendale  also  recommends  tapestry  or  other  sort  of 
needlework  for  seats. 

"  Nine  designs  of  chairs  after  the  Chinese  manner  are 
very  proper  for  a  lady's  dressing-room;  especially  if  it  is 
hung  with  India  paper.  They  will  likewise  suit  Chinese 
temples.  They  have  commonly  cane-bottoms  with  loose 
cushions;  but,  if  required,  may  have  slipped  seats  and 
brass  nails.  The  backs  and  seats  are  of  fretwork.  The 
seat  is  19  inches  deep,  17  inches  long;  the  back  20  inches 
high,  and  the  legs,  from  floor  to  seat,  17  inches;  and  those 
made  of  pierced  fretwork  are  2j4  inches  wide.'' 

The  dimensions  of  nine  other  chairs  in  "  the  Chinese 
manner "  are  as  follows :  Width  of  the  square  leg,  2J/2 
inches;  seat  front  rail,  i  foot  10  inches;  back  of  seat,  19 
inches;  depth,  I7J4;  height  of  back,  19J/2  inches.  An- 
other had  a  leg  i  J^  inches  wide ;  1 7  inches  high,  front  seat 
rail,  22J/2  inches;  back  of  seat,  19  inches;  depth,  17  inches; 
height  of  back  from  seat,  20  inches. 

The  old  "  crown-back  "  survives  in  the  chair  on  Plate 
XCVII.  though  a  Chippendale  model.  The  back  is  mas- 
sive, the  side  supports  have  splayed  angles,  and  the  top 
is  wavy.  Scrolls,  foliage  and  blossoms  run  on  both  sides 
from  a  small  central  shell.  The  centre  splat  is  of  a  tall 
vase  form,  carved  and  pierced  with  foliage,  flowers  and 
reversed  scrolls.  The  legs  are  cabriole  with,  however,  slight 
spring;  and  are  carved  on  the  knees  with  scroll  foliage. 
The  feet  are  spiral  scrolls. 

Chippendale's  "  sofa  for  a  grand  apartment "  differs 
little  from  one  designed  by  Meissonier  for  the  Grand  Mar- 
shal of  Poland  in  1735.  Ornate  as  Meissonier's  canape  is, 
Chippendale's  is  even  more  elaborate,  for  the  carving  con- 
sists of  shells  and  a  Cupid  on  the  centre  of  the  top  rail,  with 

199 


Furniture 

two  large  birds  and  bunches  of  flowers  below  him.  "If 
gilt,  with  burnished  gold,"  says  Chippendale,  "  the  whole 
will  have  a  noble  appearance.  The  dimensions  are  9  feet 
long  without  the  scrolls,  the  broadest  part  of  the  seat  from 
front  to  back,  2  feet  6  inches ;  the  height  of  the  back  from 
the  seat,  3  feet  6  inches,  and  the  height  of  the  seat,  i  foot 
2  inches,  without  casters." 

When  sofas  are  made  large,  "  they  have  a  bolster  and 
pillow  at  each  end  and  cushions  at  the  back  which  may  be 
laid  down  occasionally  and  form  a  mat- 
tress. The  sizes  differ  greatly;  but  com- 
monly they  are  from  6  to  9  or  10  feet 
long;  the  depth  of  the  seat  from  front  to 
back,  from  2  feet  3  inches  to  3  feet;  and 
the  height  of  the  seat,  i  foot  2  inches  with 
CHIPPENDALE  CHAIR-    castcrs.     Thc  scrolls  are  18  to  to  inches 

---'"■'  _  high." 

Of  the  chaise  longue  Chippendale  says :  "  This  is  what 
the  French  call  Peche  Mortel.  They  are  sometimes  made 
to  take  asunder  in  the  middle ;  one  part  makes  a  large  easy 
chair  and  the  other  a  stool,  and  the  feet  join  in  the  middle, 
which  looks  badly.  It  should  have  a  thick  mattress,  6  feet 
long  in  the  clear,  and  2  feet  6  inches  to  2  feet  broad."  This 
is,  of  course,  the  Duchesse  (see  page  193). 

Some  of  Chippendale^s  "  Chinese  sophas  "  could  be  con- 
verted into  beds,  and  were  supplied  with  canopies,  curtains 
and  valances,  while  others  were  sofas  pure  and  simple.  He 
gives  one  design  which  consists  of  a  French  canape  covered 
with  silk,  depicting  a  "  gallant  scene  "  in  the  style  of  Wat- 
teau;  and  over  it  a  pagoda-shaped  canopy  adorned  with 
bells  and  formal  draperies  in  festoons. 

The  open-back  settee  of  two  or  more  chair  backs  was 
also  a  favorite.     (See  Plate  XCVI.) 

A  Chippendale  sofa  in  the  "  French  style  "  is  shown  on 

200 


o 


try 

TD    CD 

a>  n 


Seats 

Plate  XCVIL,  supported  on  seven  legs,  the  four  front  ones 
cabriole,  and  carved  with  shells  at  the  spring  and  ending  in 
lions'  feet.  The  arms  terminate  in  carved  lions'  heads  and 
spread  out  gracefully.  The  upholstery  is  old  English  needle- 
work representing  landscapes  and  pastoral  scenes,  put  on 
with  brass-beading.  The  arms  are  also  partly  covered 
with  the  tapestry.    The  piece  is  5  feet  7  inches  long. 

Heppelwhite  furniture  is  valued  by  collectors  for  its 
beautiful  workmanship,  durability  and  general  lightness  of 
effect;  and,  if  the  proportions  are  not  always  satisfactory, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  Heppelwhite  frequently  made 
furniture  —  particularly  chairs  —  "  according  to  the  size 
of  the  room  or  pleasure  of  the  purchaser." 

The  Heppelwhite  chair  is  very  famous.  Its  proportions 
are :  height,  3  feet  i  inch ;  height  to  seat  frame,  1 7  inches ; 
depth  of  seat  17  inches ;  and  width  of  seat  in  front,  20  inches. 
The  legs  are  straight  and  never  connected  by  stretchers,  but 
are  frequently  ornamented  with  the  husk  or  bell-flower  inlaid 
in  pale  satin-wood  or  carved  in  low  relief.  The  tapering  leg 
usually  ends  in  the  "  spade "  foot,  sometimes  called  the 
"  Marlborough "  foot.  The  backs  are  usually  shield,  or 
heart-shaped,  and  are  ornamented  with  the  three  feathers 
of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  the  urn  (draped  or  undraped), 
swags  of  drapery,  festoons  of  the  bell-flower,  the  lotus, 
rosette  and  patera,  and  draped  tazsa. 

Although  most  people  associate  mahogany  with  Heppel- 
white, he  did  not  by  any  means  restrict  himself  to  this  wood 
for  frames  of  seats.    He  writes: 

"  For  chairs,  a  new  and  very  elegant  fashion  has  arisen 
within  these  few  years,  of  finishing  them  with  painted  or 
japanned  work,  which  gives  a  rich  and  splendid  appearance 
to  the  minuter  parts  of  the  ornaments,  which  are  generally 
thrown  in  by  the  painters.  Several  of  these  designs  (his 
own)  are  particularly  adapted  to  this  style,  which  allows  a 

201 


Furniture 

framework  less  massy  than  is.  requisite  for  mahogany,  and 
by  assorting  the  prevailing  color  to  the  furniture  and  light 
of  the  room,  affords  opportunity,  by  the  variety  of  grounds 
which  may  be  introduced,  to  make  the  whole  accord  in  har- 
mony, with  a  pleasing  and  striking  effect  to  the  eye." 

Chairs  with  stuffed  backs  Heppelwhite  calls  cabriole 
chairs,  and  gives  one  ""  of  the  newest  fashion."  This  has  a 
shield-shaped  back,  a  little  cushion- on  the  arm  fastened  by 
means  of  tiny  nails,  and  legs  representing  reeds  bound  with 
ribbon.    A  square  patera  hides  the  joining. 

Among  the  designs  of  twelve  chair-backs,  "  proper  to  be 
executed  in  mahogany  or  japan,"  he  says  some  of  fhem  are~ 
"  applicable  to  the  more  elegant  kind  of  chairs  with  back 
and  seats  of  red,  or  blue,  morocco  leather;  in  these  backs, 
which  are  sometimes  made  a  little  circular,  are  frequently 
inserted  medallions,  printed  or  painted  on  silk  of  the  nat- 
ural colors;  when  the  back  and  seats  are  of  leather,  they 
should  be  tied  down  with  tassels  of  silk  or  thread.". 

It  is  noticeable  that  Heppelwhite  generally  uses  the  brass- 
headed  hail  for  fastening  his  coverings  to  the  frames  of 
seats.  These  nails  are  placed  very  close  together  and  are 
frequently  arranged  argund  the  edge  of  the  seat  in  the 
form  of  festoons  or  scallops. 

For  drawing-room  chairs,  he  insists  upon  silks  and  satins, 
with  printed  oval  medallions,  or  floral  designs  on  light  back- 
grounds; but  he  prefers  the  stripe  to  ever)rthing  else. 
When  blue  or  red  morocco  leather  was  used  it  was  put  on 
with  ornamental  brass  nails.  In  some  cases  "  the  leather 
backs,  or  seats,  should  be  tied  down  with  tassels  of  silk  or 
thread." 

For  the  open  back  and  curved  chair,  the  seat  covering 
was  of  silk,  satin,  leather  and  horsehair.  The  latter  was 
plain,  striped,  figured  or  checked. 

"  Mahogany  chairs,"  he  says,   "  should  have  the  seats 

202 


',/  '  '.  >    »   » 


>'  >  \-> 


n 

n 
3 

SL 

ft) 


O 


fD 
fD 


fft 
fB 

fT 

I 


r 
> 

H 
W 

o 
< 


Seats 

of  horsehair,  plain,  striped,  checquered,  etc.,  at  pleasure,  or 
cane  bottoms  with  cushions,  the  cases  of  which  should  be 
covered  with  the  same  as  the  curtains." 

"  Stools,"  Heppelwhite  remarks,  "  should  match  the 
chairs,  the  framework  should  be  of  mahogany,  or  japanned, 
and,  of  course,  should  be  covered  like  the  chairs." 

Among  Heppelwhite's  most  charming  creations  are  his 
"  Window  stools,"  in  reality  small  sofas,  the  ends  of  which 
are  alike.  They  are  intended  to  be  placed  directly  under 
the  window  and  "  their  size  must  be  regulated  by  the  size 
of  the  place  where  they  are  to  stand;  their  heights  should 
not  exceed  the  heights  of  the  chairs."  Their  frames  were 
like  the  chairs,  of  mahogany  or  painted  in  some  light  color, 
or  japanned  and  covered  like  the  chairs.  Some  of  them 
had  tufted  seats  ornamented  with  buttons,  and  some  of 
them  were  finished  with  a  festooned  valance,  decorated 
at  intervals  with  a  tiny  tassel. 

The  proportion  of  Heppelwhite's  sofa  was  usually  from 
six  to  seven  feet  in  length;  the  depth  about  thirty  inches; 
and  the  height  of  the  seat  frame  fourteen  inches ;  height  of 
the  back,  3  feet  i  inch.  "  The  woodwork,"  to  quote 
from  Heppelwhite's  directions,  "  should  be  either  mahogany 
or  japanned,  in  accordance  to  the  chairs,  and  the  covering 
also  must  be  of  the  same."  The  newest  fashion  was  an 
oblong  sofa,  "  the  frame  japanned  with  green  on  a  white 
ground  and  the  edges  gilt;  the  covering  of  red  morocco 
leather." 

Of  the  confidante  (see  page  193),  he  says:  "This 
piece  of  furniture  is  of  French  origin,  and  is  in  pretty  gen- 
eral request  for  large  and  spacious  suites  of  apartments. 
An  elegant  drawing-room,  with  modern  furniture,  is  scarce 
complete  without  a  confidante,  the  extent  of  which  may 
be  about  nine  feet,  subject  to  the  same  regulations  as  sofas. 
This  piece  of  furniture  is  something  so  constructed  that 

203 


Furniture 

the  ends  take  away  and  leave  a  regular  sofa ;  the  ends  may 
be  used  as  Barjair  chairs"  (see  page  192). 

Of  the  Diichesse,  he  also  says,  "  This  piece  of  furniture 
is  derived  from  the  French.  Two  Barjair  chairs  of  proper 
construction,  with  a  stool  in  the  middle,  form  the  Duchesse, 
which  is  allotted  to  large  and  spacious  ante-rooms;  the 
covering  may  be  various,  as  also  the  frameworkj,^nd  made 
from  six  to  eight  feet  long.  The  stuffing  may  be  of  the 
round  manner,  or  low-stuffed  wath  a  loose  squab,  or  bordered 
cushion,  fitted  to  each  part.  Confidantes,  sofas  and  chairs 
may  be  stuffed  in  the  same  manner." 

The  "  bar-back  "  was  a  novelty.  It  appeared  as  if  four 
open-back  chairs  were  placed  side  by  side,  the  end  ones,  of 
course,  supplied  with  an  arm.  Though  we  are  told  that 
this  sofa  was  a  recent  invention,  it  w^as  only  a  development 
of  the  old  double  chair  (see  Plate  LXXXV.).  "The 
lightness  of  its  appearance  has  procured  it  a  favorable 
reception  in  the  first  circles  of  fashion.  The  pattern  of  the 
back  must  match  the  chairs;  these  will  also  regulate  the 
sort  of  framework  and  covering." 

Sheraton  was  particularly  fond  of  the  leg  reeded,  turned 
and  decorated  with  twisted  flutes  and  fillets.  We  find  upon 
his  chair  the  husk,  or  bell-flower,  the  festoon,  the  lyre,  the 
vase,  the  column,  the  lotus,  the  urn  and  the  patera  used  to 
hide  the  joining  of  chair  frames.  His  drawing-room  fur- 
niture is  preferably  white  and  gold,  rosewood,  ordinary 
wood  painted  and  japanned.  Although  mahogany  was  used 
for  chairs  with  carved  backs,  they  are  never  seen  out  of  the 
library,  dining  and  bedrooms.  The  upholstery  for  the 
drawing-room  seats  was  of  silk  or  satin  in  oval  medallions 
or  stripes. 

Sheraton  writes :  "  It  appears  from  some  of  the  latest 
specimens  of  French  chairs,  some  of  which  we  have  been 
favored  with  a  view  of,  that  they  follow  the  antique  taste, 

204 


»»  >. 


>     >    ,     >   ;  > 


> 

r 

c^ 

> 

to 

H 

B 

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n 

X 

cr 

n 

*". 

< 

Seats 

and  introduce  into  their  arms  and  legs  various  heads  of  ani- 
mals; and  that  mahogany  is  the  chief  wood  used  in  their 
best  chairs,  into  which  they  bring  in  portions  of  ornamental 
brass;  and,  in  my  opinion,  not  without  a  proper  effect, 
when  due  restraint  is  laid  on  the  quantity."  His  drawing- 
room  chairs  followed  the  French  taste  of  the  day.  They 
were  gilded,  painted  in  any  color  and  covered  with  silk. 
In  1792  he  recommends  an  arm-chair  of  carved  mahogany 
or  black  rosewood  and  gold;  and  '*  if  a  brass-beading  is 
put  round  the  stuffing  to  hide  the  tacks,"  this  chair,  he  tells 
us,  "  will  produce  a  lively  effect."  Another  chair  frame 
he  wishes  "  finished  in  burnished  gold,  the  seat  and  back 
covered  with  printed  silk.  In  the  front  rail  is  a  table  with 
a  little  carving  in  its  panels.  The  legs  and  stumps  have 
twisted  flutes  and  fillets  done  in  the  turning,  which  produce 
a  good  effect  in  the  gold."  Among  his  designs,  we  find 
chairs  of  the  latest  French  style,  namely :  "a  hunting-chair 
with  square  back  and  wings,"  stuffed  all  over  except  the 
legs,  which  are  of  mahogany,  and  having  a  slide-out  frame 
in  front  to  make  a  resting-place  for  one  that  is  fatigued, 
as  hunters  usually  are ;  an  "  easy  and  warm  "  chair  for 
sick  persons  called  a  ''  tub  chair,"  with  side  wings  com- 
ing forward  to  keep  off  the  air;  chairs  that  he  calls 
"  curricle  "  "  from  their  being  shaped  like  that  kind  of 
carriage,"  and  another  original  design  that  he  calls  "  Her- 
culaneum,"  "  so  named  on  account  of  their  antique  style 
of  composition." 

His  "  Conversation  chairs  "  follow  precisely  the  model 
of  the  voyelle  (see  page  196). 

The  Sheraton  settees  also  exhibit  backs  similar  to  those  of 
his  chairs  —  particularly  those  known  as  the  "  Fancy  Chair." 
(See  Plate  C) 

Among  Sheraton's  latest  designs  is  a  hergere  (1803) 
with  a  caned  back  and  seats:    "The  stumps  and  legs  are 

205 


Furniture 

turned,"  he  says,  "  and  the  frames  generally  painted."  The 
hergere  is  rendered  more  comfortable  with  the  addition  of 
loose  cushions.  About  this  time  cane  became  very  popular. 
Sheraton  informs  us  in  1803  that  "  Caning  cabinet  work  is 
now  more  in  use  than  it  was  ever  known  to  be.  About 
thirty  years  since,  it  was  quite  gone  out  of  fashion,  but  on 
the  revival  of  japanning  furniture  it  began  to  be  brought 
gradually  into  use,  so  that  at  present  it  is  introduced  into 
several  pieces  of  furniture  which  it  was  not  a  few  years 
past." 

Two  chairs  from  a  set  of  Sheraton  satin-wood  furniture 
consisting  of  six  chairs  and  a  settee,  with  four-chair  back 
supported  on  right  legs  (Plate  XLII.)  show  the  begin- 
ning of  the  "  Fancy  Chair."  The  backs  have  a  rectangular 
panel  of  open  trellis  and  rosettes  at  each  intersection.  The 
top  rail  is  painted.  The  side  supports  and  rail  of  the  cane 
seats  painted  with  arabesque  foliage  in  grisaille.  The 
front  legs  are  turned  balusters;  the  back,  continuations  of 
the  side  supports. 

Sheraton's  stuffed  sofas  resembled  the  sofas  in  use  in 
France,  and  matched  the  chairs.  Two  sofas  accompanied 
the  drawing-room  set  of  seats,  and  the  seat  of  his  sofa  was 
stuffed  up  in  front  about  three  inches  high  above  the  rail. 
"  Our  sofas,"  he  says,  "  are  never  covered  with  a  carpet, 
but  with  various  pattern  cottons  and  silks." 

He  also  gave  designs  for  Grecian  squabs  or  couches,  the 
frames  turned  up  at  one  end  and  made  of  white  and  gold 
or  mahogany ;  the  chaise  longue  with  "  a  stuffed  back  and 
arm  at  each  side  with  a  bolster,"  their  use  being  "  to  rest 
or  loll  upon  after  dinner  " ;  and  the  Turkey  sofa,  a  novelty 
recently  introduced  into  the  most  fashionable  homes. 
"  They  are,"  Sheraton  remarks,  "  an  imitation  of  the 
Turkish  mode  of  sitting  and  are  made  very  low,  scarcely 
exceeding  a  foot  to  the  upper  side  of  the  cushion." 

206 


» . »    ' » 


Plate  XCIX 
Heppelwhite  Shield-back  Chairs 


Seats 

During  the  Directoire,  the  open-backed  chair  increased  in 
popularity,  and  remained  a  favorite  in  the  days  of  the 
Empire.  The  lion's  head  reigned  for  a  time  as  a  decoration 
for  the  arm  or  elbow,  but  was  soon  superseded  by  the  sphinx 
and  the  swan's  head,  —  two  very  characteristic  motives  of 
this  period.  Gondola-shaped  chairs,  bar-backed  chairs  and 
heavy  scrolled  arm-chairs,  as  well  as  the 
double  arm-chair  that  followed  the  style 
of  the  sofa,  reigned  during  this  period. 

A  set  of  drawing-room  furniture  con- 
sisted of  two  sofas,  always  placed  on 
either  side  of  the  chimney-piece,  six  arm- 
chairs, six  chairs,  two  bergeres  and  two 
tabourets. 

The  draped  sofa  disappeared,  and  the 

^  ^^  '  DIRECTOIRE,    1 796 

most  popular  was  the  canape  pommier,  the 
back  of  which  was  low  and  square  and  extended  round  the 
sides  to  take  the  place  of  anns.  The  back  of  the  sofa  was 
stufifed  but  not  the  sides  or  wings.  A  feather  pillow,  cov- 
ered with  the  same  material  as  the  sofa,  was  placed  at  each 
end.  Figured  damask,  satin,  tapestry,  or  printed  cloth,  put 
on  with  braid,  was  used  for  upholstering  these  sofas.  The 
meridienne  was  a  variation  of  the  canape  pommier,  intro- 
duced during  the  Directoire  period. 

The  banquette  and  chaise  tongue  and  the  bergere  en 
gondole  with  a  low  and  rounded  back  were  very  popular. 
The  divan  came  in  during  the  last  days  of  the  Empire 
period.     It  came  from  the  East. 

The  framework  for  chairs  was  mahogany  or  painted  and 
bronzed,  and  frequently,  in  very  rich  houses,  of  gilded 
wood.  Gondola-shaped  chairs  and  heavy  scrolled  arm- 
chairs were  the  favorites  for  drawing-rooms.  The  square 
form  was  the  most  popular,  and  the  arm-chair  and  double 
arm-chair  were  rarely  supplied  with  extra  cushions.     Back 

207 


Furniture 

and  seats  were  stuffed  and  then  covered  with  silks  or 
satin  of  a  solid  color,  with  a  design  painted  upon  it. 
Braids  were  employed  to  hide  the  nails.  Worsted  damasks 
and  printed  cottons  were  used  for  less  expensive  seats. 
Leather  was  often  chosen  for  the  library  and  dining-room 
chairs. 

The  bar-back,  or  open  back,  chair  was  very  popular,  and 
legs  were  often  X-shaped.  Sometimes  the  front  leg  was  cut 
in  the  form  of  a  sabre.  The  shield  shape,  too,  was  popular 
for  the  back,  ornamented  with  military  trophies,  or  laurel 
leaves.  Desk  chairs  were  of  the  round  or  gondola  form, 
and  the  feet  generally  in  the  console  shape,  or  carved  like 
chimaerae,  or  lions,  whose  heads  came  up  to  the  level  of  the 
arms. 

The  following  extracts  from  sales  at  Christie's  auction 
rooms,  1 797-1800,  will  give  an  idea  of  fashionable  seats  at 
the  close  of  the  century : 

"  4  chair  seats,  flowers  on  yellow  velveteen. 

8  landscapes  for  chair  backs,  greys  on  blue  satin. 

6  chair  seats  and  6  chair  backs,  arabesque  in  greys  on 
blue  satin. 

6  chair  seats  and  6  chair  backs,  arabesque  in  greys  on 
yellow  satin. 

12  ornaments,  antique  reliefs,  purple  on  white  satin 
for  chair  backs. 

12  tablets  for  chair  backs,  antique  brown  on  white  satin. 

12  tablets  for  chair  backs,  antique  blue  on  white  satin. 

6  chair  backs,  greys  on  green  dimity. 

I  chair  and  seat,  greys  on  poppy-colored  satin. 

6  chair  backs  or  fire  screens,  colors  on  white  satin. 

6  mahogany  vase-back  chairs  and  i  elbow  chair,  with 
horsehair  seats,  brass-nailed. 

6  mahogany  square-back  chairs  with  horsehair  seats, 
brass-nailed. 

208 


C/3 


O 
O 

c 


a- 
o 


H 

W 


S    o 


n 

(T> 

I 

CO 

n 


Seats 

12  mahogany  back-stool  chairs  covered  with  crimson 
damask,  brass-nailed. 

lo  green  and  gold  japanned  elbow  chairs,  green  mixed 
damask  seats. 

I  mahogany  cabriole  chair  covered  with  crimson  velvet. 

8  mahogany  wheel-back  elbow-chairs,  fluted  legs  on 
castors. 

4  japanned  bamboo  elbow-chairs  and  cushions. 

A  drawing-room  suite  in  green  and  gold  consisting  of  a 
sofa  and  two  bolsters,   6  plain  cabriole 
chairs  and  12  elbow  chairs,  covered  with 
white  figured  satin  and  cotton  cases." 

The  Fancy  Chair  (see  page  85)  was 
popular  in  New  York.  In  1797,  ''Wil- 
liam Challen,  Fancy  Chair-maker  from 
London,  makes  all  sorts  of  dyed,  jap- 
anned, wangee  and  bamboo  chairs,  set- 

j  .  •    1        •         .  1  T-  EASY  CHAm  WITH  AD- 

tees,  etc.,  and  every  article  m  the  rancy      justable  back,  by 

Chair  line,  executed  in  the  neatest  man-      ^*"™ 

ner    and    after   the    newest   and   most    approved   London 

patterns." 

From  this  date  onward  we  have  many  advertisements  in 
the  New  York  papers  of  men  who  make  Fancy  and  Wind- 
sor chairs,  and  undertake  to  regild  and  paint  old  chairs  in 
the  newest  fashion.    In  1802,  we  read : 

"  Fancy  Chairs  and  cornices  —  William  Palmer,  No.  2 
Nassau  Street,  near  the  Federal  Hall,  has  for  sale  a  large 
assortment  of  elegant  well-made  and  highly  finished,  black 
and  gold,  etc.,  Fancy  Chairs  with  cane  and  rush  bottoms. 
He  has  also  some  of  the  newest  pattern  cornices  and  a 
variety  of  other  articles  in  the  Japan  line.  Old  chairs  re- 
paired, regilt,  etc.,  at  the  lowest  price  and  agreeably  to  any 
pattern.    Ornamental  painting  and  gilding  neatly  executed." 

In  1 810,  "  Paterson  &  Dennis,  No.  54  John  Street,  inform 

209 


Furniture 

their  friends  and  the  public  that  they  have  now  on  hand  a 
large  and  very  elegant  assortment  of  Fancy  chairs  of  the 
newest  patterns  and  finished  in  a  superior  style.  Elegant 
white,  coquelico,  green,  etc.,  and  gilt  drawing-room  chairs, 
with  cane  and  rush  seats,  together  with  a  handsome  assort- 
ment of  dining  and  bedroom  chairs,  etc." 

Two  years  later,  "  Asa  Holden,  32  Broad  Street,  has  a 
superb  assortment  of  highly  finished  Fancy  Chairs,  such  as 
double  and  single  cross,  fret,  chain,  gold,  ball  and  spindle 
back,  with  cane  and  rush  seats,  etc.,  of  the  latest  and  most 
fashionable  patterns.  The  cane  seats  are  warranted  to  be 
American  made,  which  are  well  known  to  be  much  superior 
to  any  imported  from  India."     (181 2.) 

In  181 7,  "  Wheaton  and  Davies,  Fancy  Chair  manufac- 
turers, have  removed  from  No.  15  Bowery  to  153  Fulton 
Street,  opposite  St.  Paul's  Church,  where  they  offer  for 
sale  an  elegant  assortment  of  curled  maple,  painted,  orna- 
mented, landscape,  sewing  and  rocking-chairs,  lounges, 
settees,  sofas,  music-stools,  etc.  Old  chairs  repaired, 
painted  and  ornamented." 

A  favorite  chair  of  the  period  was  the  "  Trafalgar," 
which  received  its  name  from  Nelson's  great  victory.  This 
chair  was  generally  of  mahogany,  and  was  in  vogue  as 
late  as  1830. 

From  1800  to  1825,  we  read  of  "  Fancy  and 
Windsor  chairs;  chairs  with  rattan  bottoms; 
rosewood  and  Fancy  painted  chairs;  chairs 
with  cane  and  rush  seats;  bamboo;  Grecian 
back;    elesrant  mahosrany  chairs,  eaele  pat- 

CHAISE  X  VOLUTES.     ^  -P        r    i  VU        1         J  T7 

RESTORATION  tcm ;      I rafalgar    with    landscapes;     I^ancy 

PERIOD  Chairs,  richly  gilt,  with  real  gold  and  bronze : 

rosewood  covered  with  yellow  plush ;   mahogany  with  plain 

and  figured  hair  seating;    Grecian  sofas  with  scroll  ends; 

imitation  rosewood  chairs,  cane  seats;    square  and  round 

2IO 


w 

2-  S 


O 


H 

W 

O 


Seats 

front  Fancy  gilt  chairs ;  Grecian  sofas,  inlaid  with  rose  and 
satin-wood;  three  banded  back  and  scroll-end  sofas;  two 
superb  settees  with  elegant  damask  cushions,  pillows,  etc., 
and  twelve  cane  seat,  white  and  gold  chairs  to  match ;  rose- 
wood sofa  covered  with  yellow  plush  and  twelve  chairs  to 
match;  and  six  scroll-end  sofas  covered  with  red  damask, 
inlaid  with  rosewood,  gilt  and  bronzed  feet." 

Black  haircloth  seating  is  especially  advertised  in  1824, 
but  haircloth  for  seats  had  been  in  use  since  the  middle  of 
the  Eighteenth  Century. 

During  the  Restoration,  which  lasted  from  181 5  to 
1830,  the  chairs  followed  the  general  character  of  the 
Empire.  The  square  backs,  however,  be- 
came slightly  more  curved,  and  the  rounded 
arms  were  terminated  by  a  dolphin's  head, 
a  volute  or  scroll,  or  the  neck  or  head  of  a 
swan.  The  feet  were  either  straight  and 
grooved,  or  were  in  the  form  of  a  scroll,  ""Jo' sErBv' l^aSonLe" 
and  very  little  carving  was  used. 

Some  models  were  imported  from  England  and  Ger- 
many, such  as  the  gondola;  but  these  were  more  suitable 
for  the  boudoir  and  sitting-room  than  the  stately  drawing- 
room. 

The  chief  woods  were  mahogany  and  palissandre.  The 
latter  was  often  enriched  with  threads  of  copper.  Maple 
was  also  used,  inlaid  with  amaranth  and  elm-root. 

The  chairs  and  sofas  were  upholstered  like  those  of  the 
Empire  and  covered  with  similar  materials,  but  the 
damask  was  frequently  decorated  with  motives  of  yellow 
or  white  or  silver.  Damask  and  silk  from  Lyons  and 
Tours  was  in  great  demand,  and  "  English  "  and  "  Per- 
sian." Braid  and  borders  were  used  to  hide  the  nails,  as 
in  the  days  of  the  Empire. 

Under  the  Directoire  and  the  Empire  every  drawing- 

211 


Furniture 


FAUTEUIL    A   VOLTAIRE 


room  had  a  sofa  on  either  side  of  the  chimney.  One  of 
the  favorite  forms  was  the  meridienne,  which  was  not 
abandoned  until  about  1830.  (See  page  89.)  At  that  date 
the  causeuse  and  the  tete-a-tete  replaced  the  meridienne  on 
either  side  of  the  hearth.  The  meridi- 
enne was  never  tufted  and  was  usually 
covered  with  tapestry  called  "  Henry,"  or 
worsted  damask,  also  called  "  English 
damask."  The  covering  was  put  on  plain 
with  an  ornamental  braid  for  a  border. 

The  form  of  the  chaise  longue  of  the 
period  varied  according  to  the  style  of 
the  faiiteuils  that  accompanied  it,  and  also  according  to  the 
fancy  of  the  maker.  It  was  often  of  the  rounded  or  gon- 
dola form,  the  back  elevated  on  one  side  and  ending  on  the 
other,  with  an  elbow  that  extended  the  whole  length  of  the 
chair.  On  the  other  side  the  back  terminated  in  a  long  rail 
(rampe)  or  cushion  that  stopped  as  it  turned  on  the  side 
opposite  the  back.  These  chaises  tongues  were  made  left 
and  right. 

During  the  early  days  of  the  Restoration  bergeres  were 
used;  but  they  soon  gave  place  to  the  faiiteuils  gondoles. 
Deep  arm-chairs  appeared  and  then  the  popular  fauteuil, 
called  Voltaire,  which  seems  to 
have  been  taken  from  England 
or  Germany.  How  it  got  its 
name  is  a  mystery,  for  Vol- 
taire is  never  represented  in 
one;  and,  indeed,  it  does  not 
seem   to   have    appeared    until  causeuse 

1825.    The  Voltaire  was  an  easy-chair,  deep  and  low  with  an 
inclined  back  that  could  be  adjusted  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
lounger.     It  was  generally  supplied  with  extra  cushions. 
About  1838  the  chaises  confortahles  appeared.     Havard 

212 


»  -    »  ».   ». 


» »     »        J   » 


Plate  CII 
Nineteenth  Century  Chairs,  by  George  Smith  (1804-1810) 


CHAISE  CONFORTA- 


Seats 

says  that  much  as  seats  had  been  padded  and  covered  in 
former  days  it  was  Dervilliers  who,  in  1838,  originated 
furniture  that  was  completely  upholstered  and  perfected 
later  by  Jeanselme  and  Sellier.  "  A  throng  of  pieces  sprung 
from  this  innovation:  all  the  crapauds, 
poufs,  Seymours,  and  hehes  date  from  this 
epoch,  if  not  in  name,  at  least  in  form  as 
*  confortable.'  " 

Ihe  chaises  confortaoles  appeared  m  all  ble,  "span- 
forms  —  gondola,  square,  oval,  Voltaire,  ische^"' ^835 
anglaise,  and  the  peculiar  "  Spanischer/'  which  was  prob- 
ably German.  The  feet  were  grooved  or  in  the  sabre  form. 
The  sofas  were  of  peculiar  shapes  and  names.  The 
canape  Marcus  enjoyed  a  certain  vogue,  receiving  its  name 
from  a  popular  maker  of  the  Restoration  period.  The 
seat  was  much  lower  and  deeper  than  that  of  the  ordinary 
sofa,  and  the  back  and  cheeks  were  curved,  and  sides  and 
elbows  were  very  high.  The  framework  was  visible  and 
carved  or  plain.  The  canape  Marcus  was  a  sort  of  divan- 
canape. 

Then  there  was  the  Borne,  a  round  or  oval  canape  or 
sofa  that  came  into  fashion  after  the  Em- 
pire. It  was  like  a  row  of  chairs  placed 
back  to  back  in  a  circle,  with  a  column 
or  pedestal  in  the  centre  for  a  vase  of 
.  flowers  or  a  statue.     It  was  much  used 

CONFroANT     A     TROIS        ...  t  n       ' 

PLACES,   OR    siA-    m  drawmg-rooms  and  galleries,  and  was 
made  square,  octagon,  pentagon,  round  or 
oval,  and  in  all  sizes. 

The  S  or  Siamoise  was  long  popular.  It  was  also  an 
upholstered  sofa  with  two  or  three  seats  joined  together 
like  the  Siamese  twins.  It  stood  in  the  centre  or  corners 
of  the  drawing-room.  From  the  fact  that  people  sit  in  it 
and  talk  cosily,  it  received  the  name  tete-a-tete. 

213 


Furniture 

The  most  peculiar  seat  of  all  was  perhaps  the  Pouf,  or 
Puji,  a  sort  of  cushion  without  arms  or  back.  It  was 
generally  round,  but  occasionally  it  was  oval  or  even  square. 
It  stood  as  high  as  the  seat  of  a  chair  and 
was  decorated  with  fringe.  The  first 
Poufs  were  made  about  1845  ^^^  were 
very  expensive.  They  were  covered  with 
rich  material  —  damask,  tapestry,  bro- 
cade, or  fine  needlework.  The  Pouf  was 
placed  in  the  centre  of  a  circle  of  chairs  around  the  hearth; 
but  it  was  a  very  uncomfortable  seat. 

Seats  grew^  lower  and  lower  during  the  Second  Empire 
until  some  critics  thought  it  would  be  more  comfortable  to 
go  a  little  further  and  have  cushions  on  the 
floor.  Deville  was  quite  horrified  at  the 
lounging  attitudes  of  the  ladies  and  gentle- 
men on  these  sofas  and  low  easy-chairs,  and 
asked  if  they  were  really  the  descendants  of  ^^^^^^^ig  0°^^ 
the  old  French  society  that  formerly  shone 
so  brilliantly  with  its  belle  tenue  and  savoir  vivre ;  and  took 
refuge  in  the  happy  thought  that  those  fauteuils  would 
soon  be  but  a  memory  of  the  Second  Empire. 

In  181 7,  Christian,  cabinet-maker,  35 
Wall  Street,  has  Grecian  sofas  for  sale;  at 
the  Fancy  Mahogany  Chair  and  Sofa  Manu- 
factory, 1 53  Fulton  Street,  Wheaton  &  Davis 
have  rosewood  and  Fancy  painted  chairs  and 
sofas  richly  ornamented  in  gold  and  bronze, 

FRENCH  i8so       ^^^^  ^^^'^'  ^^"^  ^"^  ^^^^  seats  (1819)  ;  and 
in  1823  sofas  with  plain  and  round  tops  and 
scroll  ends,  and  rosewood  sofas,  with  rich  damask  satin 
covering,  come  to  auction.    The  Grecian  sofa  is  very  fash- 
ionable for  many  years. 

In    181 7  an  Ottoman   for   a   gallery   is   recommended. 

214 


o 


> 
H 
W 

O 


Seats 

"  The  framework  is  composed  of  the  valuable  woods  en- 
riched with  carved  work  finished  in  burnished  gold.  The 
draperies  are  buff-colored  velvet,  the  pattern  being  em- 
broidered on  its  surface  and  bounded  by  ^^_-^ 
bullion  lace."                                                                [wC4 

A  sofa  designed  by  J.  Taylor  in  1821  is     .r-^r-^4 KKk^  J 
described  as  follows : 

"  For  decorations  of  the  highest  class 
the  framework  would  be  entirely  gilt  in 
burnished  and  matt  gold,  the  pillows  and  chaise  cootortable, 

.         ,         **  '  ,  *^  , .  ^      BY  DERVILLIERS,  1838 

covermg  of  satm  damask  or  velvet,  relieved 
by  wove  gold  lace  and  tassels.  For  furniture  of  less 
Splendor  the  frame  would  be  of  rosewood,  with  the  carved 
work  partly  gilt  and  the  covering  of  more  simple  materials." 
Chairs  made  in  New  York  in  the  first  quarter  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century,  by  Duncan  Phyffe,  appear  on  Plates 
XLIV.  and  CIII. 


215 


ROMAN  TABLE 


V 
TABLES 

EGYPTIAN  tables  were  quite  simple  in  form  and  their 
ornamentation  consisted  of  painting  and  inlay.     In 
the  ordinary  home  they  were  scarce,  because  people 
who  use  the  floor  for  a  seat  have  little  use  for  tables. 

*'  The  old  Greeks  and  Romans  did  not  sit  at  table  as  we 
moderns  do,  but  like  the  eastern  races  of  to-day,  reclined 
on  couches  each  long  enough  for  three  guests,  for  there 
were  always  three  or  nine  at  table,  the  number 
of  the  Graces  or  Muses.  Their  tables  were 
much  lower  than  those  of  the  following  ages, 
for  there  was  no  necessity  to  provide  space 
for  the  accommodation  of  man's  extremities, 
neither  did  the  tops  of  the  table  project  as  do  those  of 
later  times.  The  couches  occupied  three  sides  of  the  table, 
the  fourth  was  left  free  for  the  convenience  of  serving. 
The  tables  themselves  were  sometimes  quite  simple;  but 
costly  materials  were  often  used  for  those 
belonging  to  the  rich  Romans,  whose  love 
of  luxury  and  magnificence  extended  not 
only  to  the  table  ornaments  and  utensils 
but  also  to  the  tables  themselves,  the  sup- 
ports of  which  were  sometimes  of  precious  metals,  the  top 
being  formed  of  a  marble  slab.  Nor  was  this  extravagance 
confined  to  the  Romans,  for  we  read  that  the  Emperor 
Lothar  (A.  D.  842)  had  one  of  his  magnificent  tables,  which 
was  made  of  gold,  cut  up  into  pieces  and  divided  among  his 

216 


iC£J 


a 


GREEK  TABLE 


>       >  ->  »1 


>>.  1     1  »    \ 


Plate  CIV 

Sixteenth  Century  Flemish  Table  (Sambin  School) 
Table  a  Veveniail 


Tables 

followers.  Mosaics  of  tortoise-shell  and  ivory  were  also 
used  for  the  adornment  of  the  tables  of  the  ancients ;  indeed, 
here,  as  in  all  things,  thought  and  artistic  skill  were  brought 
into  juxtaposition  to  produce  noble  work.  Costly  woods 
were  brought  from  afar  for  their  use,  the  glorious  Thuja 
arbor  vitcB  from  the  forests  of  the  Atlas  Mountains  was  used 
for  the  profile,  which  was  formed  from  a  single  piece  cut  as 
near  as  possible  to  the  root  of  the  tree  where  the  markings 
were  most  beautiful,  resembling  the  eyes  of  the  peacock's 
feather  or  the  richness  of  lines  and  coloring  of  the  skin  of 
a  tiger.  In  this  as  also  in  the  following  ages  metal  was  used 
for  tables,  which  were  round  or  oblong  in  form,  the  former 
being  used  as  now  when  the  number  of  diners  was  limited. 
But  more  often  they  were  of  oak,  pine,  chestnut,  pitch- 
pine,  or  other  scented  woods ;  while  the  trestles  were  made 
of  simple  wooden  laths,  in  contradistinction  to  those  of  the 
Romans,  whose  trestles  were  elaborate  monuments  of  art."  ^ 

The  Byzantine  tables  had  columnar  legs  and  sometimes 
lions'  feet.    Some  also  were  small  and  round 
and  stood  on  one  support  ending  in  three 
feet.     The  tables  for  meals  were  very  low. 

The   tables   at   which   the   Germans   and 
Scandinavians    feasted   were   very   massive      '^^xable'^^ 
and    had    four    strong   legs.      There    were 
also    sideboards    supported   by    saw-bucks.      The    Franks 
also  had  big,   heavy  rectangular  tables,   and  small,   light 
round  ones.     Charlemagne  had  three  silver  tables  and  one 
of  gold.     These  were  engraved  with  a  map  of  the  heavens, 
and    with    plans    of    Rome   and   Constantinople.      In    the 
Tenth  Century,  the  dining-tables  were  sometimes  rectangular 
and  sometimes  semi-circular,  and  rested  on  upright  legs 
or  on  X-shaped  supports  that  could  be  folded  up.     Round 
and  oval  tables  came  into  fashion  about   1150;    but  the 
*  A.  S.  Levetus. 
217 


GERMAN  TABLE,  FIFTEENTH 
CENTUSY 


Furniture 

rectangular    shape    returned   to    favor    in   the    Thirteenth 
Century. 

Until  the  Sixteenth  Century  the  word  "  table  "  was  not 
used  in  its  present  sense.  Board  was  the  word  in  use ;  and  it 
was  perfectly  descriptive,  for  the  dining-table  consisted  of  a 
simple  board  supported  on  trestles.  In  the  great  hall,  the 
board  was  large,  consisting  of  a  great  oaken  plank,  or  planks. 
Sometimes  this  board  was  hinged  and  could  be  turned 
against  the  wallT    II' was  always  supported  by  trestles. 

Besides  wooden  tables  there  were 
great  banqueting-tables  of  stone  in 
the  halls  of  princes  and  kings. 
Froissart  mentions  one  in  describing 
the  festivities  on  the  entry  of  Queen 
Isabella  into  Paris  in  1389.  *'  You 
must  know  that  the  great  table  of 
marble,  which  is  in  the  hall  and  is 
never  removed,  was  covered  with  an  oaken  plank,  four 
inches  thick,  and  the  royal  dishes  placed  thereon.  Near 
the  table,  and  against  one  of  the  pillars,  was  the  king's 
buffet,  magnificently  decked  out  with  gold  and  silver  plate, 
and  much  envied  by  many  who  saw  it.  Before  the  king's 
table,  and  at  the  same  distance,  were  wooden  bars  with 
three  entrances,  at  which  were  sergeants-at-arms,  ushers 
and  archers,  to  prevent  any  from  passing  them  but  those 
who  served  the  table;  for  in  truth  the  crowd  was  so  very 
great  that  there  was  no  moving  but  with  much  difficulty. 
There  were  plenty  of  minstrels,  who  played  away  to  the 
best  of  their  abilities." 

The  table  at  which  the  king  was  sitting  was  a  very 

famous  one.     In  Sauval's  Antiquites  de  Paris,  we  read: 

"  At  one  end  of  the  hall  of  the  Palace  was  placed  a 

marble  table  that  filled  up  almost  the  whole  breadth  of  it, 

and  was  of  such  a  size  for  length,  breadth  and  thickness, 

■218 


''','•    ' 


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Tables 

that  it  was  supposed  to  be  the  greatest  slab  of  marble 
existing." 

It  served,  for  two  or  three  hundred  years,  very  different 
purposes :  "  at  one  time  for  a  theatre,  on  which  the  attorneys' 
clerks  acted  their  mummeries,  and  at  another  for  the  royal 
feasts,  where  only  emperors,  kings,  and  princes  of  the 
blood  were  admitted,  with  their  ladies :  the  other  great  lords 
dined  at  separate  tables.    It  was  consumed  by  fire  in  1618." 

The  other  tables  were  evidently  the  usual  board  and 
trestles;  if  they  had  been  of  heavy,  solid  oak,  they  would 
have  been  pushed  aside  by  pressure  instead  of  being  upset. 
Froissart,  who  was  present  at  the  above-mentioned  feast, 
tells  us :  "  There  were  two  other  tables  in  the  hall,  at  which 
were  seated  upward  of  five  hundred  ladies  and  damsels ;  but 
the  crowd  was  so  very  great,  it  was  with  difficulty  they  could 
be  served  with  their  dinner  which  was  plentiful  and  sump- 
tuous. There  were  so  many  people  on  all  sides,  several 
were  stifled  by  the  heat;  and  one  table  near  the  door  of 
the  chamber  of  parliament,  at  which  a  numerous  company 
of  ladies  and  damsels  was  seated,  was  thrown  down,  and 
the  company  forced  to  make  off  as  well  as  they  could." 

In  the  Fourteenth  Century  Jean  of  Burgundy  had  "  two 
dining-tables,"  one  with  folding  leaves,  and  both  with  feet 
of  ebony  and  ivory. 

The  Renaissance  tables  are  only  rich  elaborations  of  the 
board  and  trestles.  The  workmen  had  only  to  connect  the 
struts  of  the  trestles  in  the  centre  of  the  table  in  order  to 
produce  a  rough  model  of  the  richly-carved  tables  in  vogue 
from  the  days  of  Henri  11.  to  Louis  XIV. 

The  usual  model  was  a  table  standing  on  four  feet  joined 
by  stretchers,  or  standing  on  two  rails,  also  united  by  a 
cross-piece.  In  very  ornate  tables,  however,  the  end  sup- 
ports, which  spread  out  in  the  shape  of  a  fan,  were  carved 
in  a  very  complicated  style.     From  the  stretcher,  or  cross- 

219 


Furniture 

piece,  slender  columns  or  pillars  rise  to  support  the  centre 
of  the  slab,  while  the  ends  are  supported  by  the  elaborately- 
carved  scrolls  or  fan,  on  which  appear  masques,  satyrs, 
mermaids,  dragons,  or  rams'  heads  garlanded.  Each  of 
these  ends  in  turn  stands  on  a  foot,  terminating  in  a  horse's 
head,  lion's  foot,  or  a  scroll.  The  slab  of  the  table  is 
ornamented  with  a  decorative  edge  of  gadroons  or  scrolls, 
or  marquetry,  and  the  corners  are  decorated  with  mascarons 
or  the  muzzles  of  lions,  and,  perhaps,  a  drop  ornament. 
These  tables  could  be  lengthened  by  means  of  a  sort  of 
sliding  shelf  that  was  concealed  at  each  end.  Thus  the 
surface  of  the  table  could  be  doubled.  All  these  tables 
stood  much  higher  than  the  modern  tables,  just  as  the 
chairs  of  the  same  period  did.  Several  beautiful  examples 
by  Hugues  Sambin  and  his  school  are  still  in  existence  in 
museums  and  private  collections.  One  by  Sambin,  in  the 
Museum  of  Besangon,  is  always  held  up  as  a  model  of  his 
work.  It  is  decorated  with  foliage  and  carved  ornaments, 
and  upheld  by  two  fan-shaped  supports  consisting  of  great 
scrolls  ending  in  lions'  claws  at  the  base  and  rams'  heads 
at  the  top,  and  framing  the  head  of  a  grinning  satyr.  From 
this  head  hangs  a  swag  of  flowers. 

A  table  belonging  to  the  Sambin  School  appears  on 
Plate  CIV.  It  has  a  long  stretcher  on  which  the  support- 
ing columns  rest,  and  these  columns  are  further  connected 
with  arches  at  the  top.  The  side  supports  are  very  massive, 
and  are  heavily  carved  with  Renaissance  figures  and 
chimaerse. 

On  the  same  Plate  is  shown  a  beautiful  table  of  the 
Sixteenth  Century  resting  on  six  legs,  joined  by  one  long 
stretcher  and  two  cross-pieces,  and  decorated  at  the  four 
corners  with  four  large  acorn-shaped  drop  ornaments  that 
add  a  graceful  touch  to  the  severity  of  the  design.  This  is 
a  typical  and  beautiful  specimen  of  Louis  XIII.  furniture. 

220 


n 

I  ^ 

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3    <! 
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O 

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Tables 

When  the  Florentine  mosaic  work,  composed  of  precious 
stones,  semi-precious  stones,  or  pebbles  from  the  bed  of 
the  Arno,  and  mosaics  of  wood  of  different  colors  became 
the  rage,  succeeding  the  ^ar^ta- work  of  the  Fifteenth  and 
Sixteenth  Centuries,  tables  were  considered  especially  ap- 
propriate for  this  kind  of  decoration.  On  a  big  figure,  or 
slab,  of  marble  or  slate  —  usually  dark  in  tint,  though 
sometimes  of  pure  white  —  the  small  pieces  were  arranged 
according  to  a  pattern  or  picture,  and  then  the  whole  was 
polished.  The  famous  table  of  the  chateau  de  Richelieu 
(6  feet  by  4  feet),  valued  at  900,000  francs,  now  in  the 
Louvre,  was  made  in  Florence  when  this  kind  of  work  was 
most  fashionable. 

Francesco  de'  Medici  ordered  a  splendid  library  table 
from  Bernardo  Buontolenti,  which  is  described  by  Vasari 
as  made  of  "  ebony,  veneered  with  ebony,  divided  into 
compartments  by  columns  of  heliotrope,  oriental  jasper  and 
lapis-lazuli,  which  have  the  vases  and  capitals  of  chased 
silver.  The  work  is,  furthermore,  enriched  with  jewels, 
beautiful  ornaments  of  silver,  and  exquisite  little  figures 
interspersed  with  miniatures  and  terminal  figures  of  silver 
and  gold,  in  full  relief,  united  in  pairs.  There  are,  besides, 
other  compartments  formed  of  jasper,  agates,  heliotropes, 
sardonyxes,  cornelians,  and  other  precious  stones." 

When  the  new  styles  of  the  Seventeenth  Century  sup- 
planted the  sumptuously  carved  furniture  of  the  Valois 
period,  the  table  disappeared  beneath  its  cover,  which,  gar- 
nished with  fringe,  touched  the  floor.  The  tables  of  this 
period  stood  on  spiral  legs  connected  by  a  spirally  turned 
cross-bar,  or  stretcher,  that  ran  directly  through  the  centre, 
or  that  connected  all  four  legs.  If  the  stretcher  was  not 
spirally  turned,  it  consisted  of  a  flat  bar  that  lay  very  close 
to  the  floor,  joining  the  four  legs,  each  of  which  terminated 
in  a  small  flattened  ball- foot.    The  table  cloth  fitted  tightly 

221 


Furniture 

over  the  slab  and  touched  or  swept  the  floor.  The  cloth 
was,  in  fact,  a  kind  of  case.  This  table  was  sometimes 
furnished  with  drawers  and  often  decorated  with  inlay. 
The  top  slab  could  be  lengthened  at  will. 

A  white  cloth  spread  over  the  heavy  cloth  or  rug  that 
covered  the  slab,  and  a  mirror  hung  on  the  wall  above, 
appear  in  the  pictures  and  prints  of  the  period,  show  that 
the  ordinary  table  served  for  the  toilet.  About  1640, 
the  "  drop  leaf,"  or  "  hang  ear  "  tables  came  into  vogue. 
Many  of  these  were  made  of  solid  walnut,  or  sacredaan 
wood. 

In  the  Seventeenth  Century,  lightness  was  carried  far- 
ther, and  the  table  was  simply  supported  by  four  turned 
legs  with  heavy  bulb  feet,  connected  with  straining-rails 
close  to  the  floor.  These  legs  swelled  out  into  the  form  of 
acorns  (often  curved)  or  globes,  sometimes  stained  black, 
or  picked  out  with  black  threads. 

The  peculiarity  of  the  slab  gave  this  special  kind  of  table 
the  descriptive  name  of  "  drawing-table."  The  drawing-table 
was,  therefore,  composed  of  extra  leaves  superimposed  on 
lower  ones  that  could  be  drawn  forward  so  that  the  top 
leaves  could  fall  into  the  space  the  lower  ones  made,  and 
form  with  the  leaves,  thus  lengthened,  one  continuous  sur- 
face. The  mechanism  by  which  these  leaves  were  length- 
ened and  dropped  was  both  intricate  and  ingenious. 

Greater  lightness  being  required,  the  legs  were  soon 
turned  in  plain  spirals  or  with  beading.  A  typical  form 
now  appears,  which  was  either  round  or  oval,  and  consisted 
of  a  frame  with  spirally  turned  legs  and  flaps,  or  falling 
leaves,  that  were  supported  by  legs.  These  legs  could  be 
pulled  forward  when  required;  and,  when  not  in  use, 
folded  back  into  the  frame.  These  are  called  "  gate-leg- 
ged," or  "  thousand-legged  tables,"  for  they  had  six,  eight, 
twelve,  sixteen,  or  even  twenty  legs.     The  table  could  be 

222 


>      5,      1      »      '  '  J       1 


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Tables 

shut  up  into  about  one-third  of  its  extended  length.     (See 
Plates  CV.  and  CVI.) 

This  spiral  kind  of  table  was  made  in  all  sizes  and  of  all 
kinds  of  wood.  It  even  lasted  until  mahogany  came  into 
general  use  among  the  wealthy,  for  a  fine  example,  owned 
by  Sir  William  Johnson,  is  preserved  in  the  Albany  In- 
stitute and  Historical  and  Art  Society.  It  is  of  rich  red 
mahogany,  29 ^^  inches  high,  6  feet,  6  inches  long  and  5 
feet,  II  inches  across  the  shortest  diameter.  The  leaves 
drop  or  are  supported  by  legs  that  fold  into  the  frame. 
This  table  was  confiscated  in  1776. 

The  Flemings  of  the  Seventeenth  Century  were  par- 
ticularly skilful  in  the  production  of  tables  and  chairs. 
They  made  tables  of  all  forms:  dining-tables,  writing- 
tables,  card-tables,  chair-tables,  bureau-tables,  round,  square 
and  oval  tables,  tables  that  stand  on  one  foot,  tables  that 
stand  on  three  feet,  folding-tables  and  tables  a  banc  (or 
bench  tables).  They  were  made  of  oak,  maple,  walnut, 
cedar,  cypress,  marble  and  sometimes  of  silver,  of  mosaic 
and  of  marquetry;  and  they  were  beautifully  carved  and 
embellished  with  gold. 

In  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  tables  were  ornate  and  hand- 
some. The  finest  were  of  carved  and  gilded  wood  with 
term-shaped  legs  connected  by  straining-rails.  Some  had 
the  hind's  foot  {pied  de  hiche).  Tables  were  also  made 
of  violet-wood,  walnut,  pine,  cherry,  or  other  woods  with 
simple  turned  feet;  and  these  were  covered  with  a  cloth 
that  matched  the  hangings  of  the  room.  Marquetry  was 
also  a  favorite  ornamentation  for  tables  at  this  period. 

The  gueridon,  or  small  tripod  table,  consisting  of  a 
column  ending  in  three  feet  and  supporting  a  small,  round 
top,  seems  to  have  made  its  advent  at  this  time.  It  was 
much  used  for  cards.  Other  card-tables  were  three- 
cornered,  or  cut  into  five  faces. 

223 


Furniture 

Console-tables  often  stood  with  their  backs  against  a 
pier-glass.  Their  slabs  were  of  handsome  marble,  or 
mosaic,  and  their  frames  very  elaborate  and  heavy. 

Boulle's  tables  are  superb. 

A  handsome  table  from  the  Wallace  Gallery  appears  on 
Plate  CVII.  This  shows  how  the  Boulles  kept  up  with  the 
fashion.  Here  we  have  a  graceful  sweeping  line  for  the  legs, 
and  the  two  smaller  drawers  are  separated  from  the  larger 
one  in  the  centre  by  a  graceful  sweeping  crescent  in  gilt 
bronze.  The  mascarons  at  the  corners  and  that  decorate 
the  handles  of  the  drawers  are  or  moulu  as  are  also  the  leaf- 
shoes  of  the  feet. 

Moliere,  who  died  in  1673,  had  among  his  effects  "two 
small  carved  loo  tables  of  gilded  wood  with  three  eaglet's 
claws  for  feet,  painted  bronze  color,  top  hexagonal  (80 
livres) ;  a  little  table  with  pillars  of  turned  wood;  a  wooden 
table  with  parquet  top  representing  flowers  (30  livres), 
and  two  small  tables  of  similar  wood  (18  livres)  ";  also 
a  "Turkish  table  cover,"  valued  at  15  livres. 

Marot's  tables  differ  a  little  from  those  in  use  in  France. 
Of  course,  they  have  the  characteristic  Marot  ornamenta- 
tion. As  the  Eighteenth  Century  progresses,  marquetry  is 
more  and  more  used  as  a  decoration  for  table  tops  and  even 
the  legs  are  inlaid  with  floral  ornaments.  The  legs  grow 
slimmer  and  the  term-shaped  leg  with  flat  ball  feet,  con- 
nected by  stretchers,  gives  place  to  the  cabriole  that  first 
ends  in  the  simple  hoof  and  later  in  the  ball-and-claw  foot. 

The  console-table,  with  gilded  frame  and  marble  slab,  is 
greatly  used  in  the  Louis  XV.  period.  In  fact,  it  occurs  in 
almost  every  room.  In  the  bedroom,  it  stands  between 
the  two  principal  windows,  opposite  the  bed.  There  are 
usually  two  consoles  in  the  salon.     (See  Plate  CIX.) 

The  frames  are  ornate  and  exhibit  a  bewildering  com- 
bination of  scrolls,  flowers,  leaves,  twisting  dragons  and 

224 


•••   •      •  •      .  •  •••  •  ••  •  ••• 


Plate  CVIII 

Sideboard -Table,  William  and  Mary  Period;  Oak  Dining-Table; 
Seventeenth  Century  English  Dressing-Tables 


Tables 

shells.  In  the  days  of  the  Regency  the  favorite  monkey  is 
sometimes  climbing  and  peering  through  the  foliage. 

The  taste  of  Louis  XV.  for  small  rooms,  and,  more 
particularly,  for  little  suppers,  banished  rigid  etiquette  and 
ceremony.  Ingenious  mechanics  now  invented  tables  and 
buffets  for  informal  service,  —  pieces  in  which  shelves 
could  be  made  to  rise  and  fall,  and  which  contained 
various  contrivances  to  raise  dumb-waiters.  The  cabinet- 
makers, too,  were  skilful,,  and,  therefore,  the  tables  of  Choisy, 
Versailles  and  Trianon  are  classed  among  the  most  sumptu- 
ous and  ingenious  works  of  the  day.  Many  persons  were  en- 
gaged upon  the  famous  "  moving  table  "of  Choisy.  Sulpice, 
the  cabinet-maker,  designed  it ;  Guerin  made  the  mechanism 
for  the  model;  the  table  itself  was  made  by  Lechaude; 
Loret,  the  goldsmith,  furnished  the  copper  and  silver 
mounts ;  and  Loriau  supplied  the  cables.  A  movable  buffet 
was  made  for  similar  apartments  in  Versailles. 

In  the  middle  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  tables  were 
made  with  movable  tops;  tops  that  could  be  raised  or 
lowered;  writing  tables,  at  which  one  stood  up  to  write; 
and  tables  ^^  en  croissant."  In  1754  Madame  de  Pom- 
padour had  a  writing-table  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  with 
a  desk.  It  was  inlaid  with  rosewood  and  satin-wood  and 
feet  and  mounts  of  or  moulu.  A  table  in  the  Louvre,  sup- 
posed to  have  belonged  to  the  daughters  of  Louis  XV.,  is  of 
rosewood  and  satin-wood,  beautifully  ornamented  with  or 
moulu,  the  top  covered  with  blue  velvet,  —  the  favorite 
material  for  covering  the  tops  and  lining  the  drawers  of  a 
lady's  desk  at  this  period. 

Ladies'  desks  were  charming:  one  called  the  bonheur 
du  jour  is  very  delicate  in  form  and  is  made  of  ornamental 
woods. 

The  long  bureau  table,  with  a  tier  of  shelves  supplied 
with  pigeon-holes,  called  serre-papiers,  was  a  favorite  writ- 

225 


Furniture 

ing-table  until  the  cylinder  bureau,  with  the  roll  top,  said 
to  have  been  invented  by  Prince  Kaunitz,  drove  it  from 
the  field. 

On  Plate  CX.  a  charming  table  of  this  period  is  shown. 
It  is  of  waved  lines,  made  of  veneered  wood,  the  frieze 
ornamented  with  three  panels  of  lattice- work  of  mother-of- 
pearl  and  red  horn  on  a  ground  of  horn,  colored  green, 
sprinkled  with  flowerets  and  framed  in  gilt-bronze  scrolls. 
The  ornaments  on  the  spring  of  the  leg  and  the  leaf -shoes 
of  the  feet  are  gilded  bronze.  The  slab,  of  wood  and 
gilded  bronze,  is  movable,  and  beneath  it  are  two  small 
drawers  and  one  large  drawer. 

Until  the  Eighteenth  Century  the  special  dressing-table 
seems  to  have  been  unknown.  Pictures  of  the  period  show 
ladies  seated  before  a  low  table  covered  with  a  cloth,  or  in 
front  of  a  commode,  or  table  with  drawers,  or  low  case  of 
drawers,  resembling  the  one  on  Plate  LII. 

The  bureau  de  commode  often  contained  a  drawer  fitted 
up  as  a  desk.  It  was  probably  because  of  this  fact  that  the 
word  bureau  has  been  so  frequently  misused  for  the  dress- 
ing-table. 

When  the  straight  line  again  dominated  furniture  in  the 
Louis  XVI.  period,  the  table  naturally  yielded  to  the 
fashion.  Tables  were  delicate  and  charming,  and  include 
writing-tables  with  ingenious  appliances  to  lift  the  desks 
up  and  down  to  any  height  desired,  pretty  work-tables, 
that  are  also  writing-desks,  supplied  with  a  tambour-shut- 
ter to  conceal  the  shelves,  dainty  tea-tables  and  round,  fold- 
ing and  square  card-tables  are  numerous  and  varied.  These 
are  greatly  prized  by  collectors,  particularly  if  they  are 
adorned  with  Sevres  plaques. 

The  table  servant e,  a  kind  of  dumb-waiter  with  drawers 
and  shelves  arranged  in  tiers,  and  standing  on  four  grooved 
feet  on  casters,  also  became  popular.    This  contained  many 

226 


Plate  CIX 

Regency  Console-Table 
Metropolitan  Museum 
Louis  XV.  Console-Table 


Tables 

little  drawers  for  various  articles  of  table  service.  It  fre- 
quently appears  in  the  caricatures  of  Grand ville,  Charlet 
and  H.  Monnier. 

More  notable,  however,  was  the  advent  of  the  extension 
dining-table  standing  on  four,  six,  or  eight  feet,  and  open- 
ing in  the  middle.  This  appeared  in  France  earlier  than 
in  England,  where  it  is  not  found  until  about  1800. 

Another  popular  table  was  the  flower-table,  or  jardiniere. 
It  made  its  first  appearance  in  the  form  of  a  square  pier 
table,  and  was  arranged  for  growing-plants,  lined  with  lead, 
and  frequently  decorated  with  porcelain  plaques.  Some- 
times it  had  an  additional  shelf  for  a  globe  of  gold  fish. 
The  table  a  Heurs  was  placed  in  the  drawing-room  and 
boudoir.  A  description  of  one  occurs  in  an  advertisement 
in  one  of  the  Parisian  newspapers  in  1777: 

"  For  sale  a  beautiful  table  a  HeurSy  now  being  made,  of 
satin-wood,  lined  with  lead,  the  four  feet  a  roulettes,  orna- 
mented with  gilded  shoes,  the  rings  forming  the  handles 
also  or  moulu,  a  drawer  lined  with  lead  to  catch  the  water. 
Address,  Thomas,  rue  de  Menars." 

The  console-table  was  composed  of  straight,  grooved  legs, 
or  legs  grooved  and  tapering.  The  ornaments  were  very 
slight,  such  as,  for  example,  a  little  gilded  metal  rail  around 
the  top  and  base,  a  rosette,  a  trophy,  or  some  other  orna- 
ment under  the  slab  in  the  centre,  and,  perhaps,  a  little 
gold  decoration  on  the  legs.  Sometimes  the  legs  were  joined 
by  a  straining-rail  which  had  an  ornament  in  the  centre, 
or  a  little  stand  on  which  was  placed  a  basket  of  flowers  or 
a  Sevres  vase.  Sometimes  the  legs  were  formed  of  a 
classic  head  and  bust  ending  in  a  term.  Console-tables  were 
made  of  mahogany,  with  brass  trimmings;  and  they  were 
also  made  of  less  expensive  woods  painted  in  bright  hues. 
Gray  was  a  favorite  shade,  particularly  towards  the  close 
of  the  period.    During  the  Reign  of  Terror  "  two  consoles, 

22y 


Furniture 

painted  in  pearl-gray,  elegantly  ornamented  with  carving, 
and  having  very  handsome  slabs  of  Carara  marble,"  are 
offered  for  sale. 

Tables  of  gilded  wood  for  the  drawing-room  went  out 
of  fashion  and  their  places  were  taken  by  solid  or  veneered 
tables  of  violet-wood,  amaranth,  rosewood,  or  mahogany, 
decorated  with  brass-work.  It  is  noticeable  that  during 
the  Empire  period  the  table  cloth  is  never  used.  If  the 
top  was  not  a  marble  slab,  then  it  was  covered  with  a  square 
of  cloth  or  velvet,  framed  in  a  border  of  wood  with  a  nar- 
row metal  moulding. 

Turning  now  to  the  English  styles  of  the  second  half  of 
the  Eighteenth  Century,  the  importance  of  the  card-table 
and  tea-table  can  hardly  be  over-estimated.  In  very  wealthy 
houses  these  were  inlaid  with  ivory  or  mother-of-pearl,  but 
in  the  ordinary  prosperous  home  they  were  of  walnut  or 
mahogany.  The  card-table,  with  its  claw-and-ball  feet,  and 
its  stands  for  the  candles  at  each  corner  and  wells  for  the 
little  fish  that  were  used  as  counters  before  the  days  of 
"  chips,"  of  Anglo-Dutch  form,  is  a  model  that  lasted  until 
late  in  the  century,  and  is  still  found  in  old  houses  and 
prized  by  collectors.  At  such  a  table  ladies  of  fashion  ir) 
wide-spreading  hoops  of  brocade  and  with  enormous  head- 
dresses, sat  to  settle  the  odd  trick,  the  flames  of  the  candles 
illuminating  their  rouged  faces  and  causing  their  jewels  to 
sparkle.  At  such  a  table  Belinda  probably  played  her 
famous  game  of  ombre  when  she  led  to  war  her  sable 
Matadores  and 

"  Spadillo  first,  unconquerable  Lord 
Led  off  two  captive  Trumps  and  swept  the  Board," 

before  she  lost  the  graceful  ringlet  that  formed  the  subject 
of  The  Rape  of  the  Lock. 

The  round  tea-table,  supported  on  a  tripod  stand,  was 

228 


Plate  CX 

Louis  XV.  Lady's  Tables,  Marquetry  of  Colored  Woods. 

Louis  XV.  Table  with  Panels  of  Lattice-work 

Louis  XV.  Writing-Table  and  Serre-Papiers 

Metropolitan  Museum 


Tables 

made  of  various  sizes,  from  one  that  could  support  a  tea- 
tray  to  one  destined  to  hold  merely  the  tea-kettle.  In  the 
latter  case  the  stand  had  a  little  gallery,  or  high  rail,  above 
it.  The  top  of  the  tea-table  v^as  made  to  revolve  and  to 
turn  downwards  when  not  in  use.  Hence  it  has  received 
the  popular  name  of  "  tip-and-turn."  The  edge  was  fre- 
quently bordered  with  a  crinkled  moulding,  which  to-day  is 
often  denominated  "  pie-crust." 

Chippendale  was  very  adept  in  the  making  of  tables.  His 
book  contains  every  kind  of  table.  His  plates  show :  china- 
tables,  dressing-tables,  bureau-dressing-tables  and  com- 
modes,  writing-tables,  library-tables,  dressing  and  writing- 
tables,  with  bookcases,  pier-glasses,  and  table  frames, 
frames  for  marble  slabs,  sideboard-tables,  bason  stands, 
tea-kettle  stands,  candle  stands,  terms  for  busts,  stands  for 
china  jars  and  pedestals,  etc. 

Chippendale's  console-tables  were  derived  from  the 
French  styles  of  the  day  and  elaborately  carved  in  the 
same  manner  as  his  picture  and  mirror  frames,  with  sub- 
jects from  mythology,  or  ^sop's  Fables,  scrolls,  leaves, 
spiky  tufts  of  grass,  icicles,  birds  and  Chinese  figures.  The 
slab  was  of  marble. 

His  "  buroe  tables  "  are  very  simple,  generally  of  two 
square  tiers  of  drawers  hollowed  out  in  the  centre  and 
covered  with  a  large  slab.  A  little  carving  sometimes  em- 
bellishes them. 

His  writing  and  library  tables  are  generally  "  Gothic  " 
in  style.  One  has  a  writing  drawer  which  draws  out  at 
one  end  and  has  term  feet  to  support  it,  and  the  top  ^'  rises 
with  a  double  horse  to  stand  to  read  or  write  upon."  They 
are  variously  supplied  with  partitions  for  books,  pigeon- 
holes, drawers,  flaps,  etc.,  etc.  Recesses  are  also  cut  for  the 
knees ;  and  are  of  a  type  long  popular. 

The  lady's  dressing-table  under  Chippendale's  treatment 

229 


Furniture 

often  is  a  kind  of  commode;  and,  as  a  rule,  he  makes  it  of 
rosewood  and  decorates  it  with  drapery.  His  glasses  are 
made  to  come  forward  on  hinges.  This  one,  described  in 
his  book,  is  characteristic.  "  The  glass  made  to  come  for- 
ward with  folding  hinges,  is  in  a  carved  frame,  and  stands  in 
a  compartment  that  rests  upon  a  plinth,  between  which  are 
small  drawers.  The  drapery  is  supported  by  Cupids  and 
the  petticoat  goes  behind  the  feet  of  the  table,  which  looks 
better.  The  ornamental  parts  may  be  gilt  in  burnished  gold 
or  japanned." 

Shaving-tables  with  folding  tops  and  glasses  that  could 
be  made  "  to  rise  out  with  a  spring  catch,"  were  also 
made  by  Chippendale;  and  some  of  these  had  devices  that 
could  bring  the  glass  forward  when  the  gentleman  was 
shaving. 

The  dining-tables  from  the  beginning  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century  and  throughout  the  Chippendale  period  consisted 
of  two  centre-pieces  with  wide  flaps  on  either  side  and  two 
semi-circular  end  pieces,  all  four  divisions  being  joined 
together  or  separated  at  will  by  means  of  small  brass 
adjustments.  Each  of  the  two  larger  portions  stood  on 
four  cabriole  legs,  and  the  semi-circular  pieces  on  two  legs 
only;  the  latter,  when  not  in  use,  were  pushed  up  against 
the  wall  and  served  as  side-tables. 

These,  however,  are  not  to  be  confused  with  the  side- 
board-table, which  took  the  place  of  the  sideboard  in  Chip- 
pendale's day.  A  typical  example  is  given  on  Plate  CXI. 
It  measures  2  feet  ^Yi  inches  high,  5  feet  10^  inches 
long,  and  i  foot,  10^  inches  deep,  is  of  oblong  form,  the 
corners  splayed  and  slightly  shaped  to  the  outline  of  the 
legs.  The  frieze  is  boldly  carved  in  relief  with  a  lattice 
and  scroll  foliage  design.  The  centre  ornamented  with 
reversed  C-scrolls.  The  plain  mahogany  top  with  moulded 
border,  is  supported  on  cluster  column  legs  of  quatrefoil 

230 


Plate  CXI 

Chippendale  Sideboard-Table 
Chippendale  Pier-Table 


7abks 

section  with  moulded  tie  and  plinths  and  carved  acanthus 
foliage  capitals. 

A  pier-table  of  the  Chippendale  style  appears  on  Plate 
CXI.  It  is  of  oblong  form,  standing  on  four  beautifully 
modelled  cabriole  legs,  ending  in  a  fine  ball-and-claw.  The 
front  is  carved  v^ith  a  pendant  having  a  pierced  shell  in  the 
centre.  Arched  scrolls  and  wave  ornaments  decorate  the 
sides  and  ends,  with  corded  string  line,  plain  frieze  and 
foliage  border.  The  slab  is  black  and  white  marble ;  length 
three  feet. 

Hepplewhite's  book  shows  designs  for  library-tables,  card- 
tables,  pier-tables,  Pembroke-tables,  tambour- tables,  dress- 
ing-tables and  drawers,  Rudd's  tables,  night-tables,  candle- 
stands,  terms  for  busts,  and  ornamental  tops  for  pier-tables, 
Pembroke-tables,  etc. 

"  Tables,  in  general,"  we  learn  from  this  book,  "  are  made 
of  the  best  mahogany.  Their  size  is  various,  but  their  height 
should  not  exceed  28  inches. 

"  Card-tables  may  be  either  square,  circular  or  oval :  the 
inner  part  is  lined  with  green  cloth;  the  fronts  may  be  en- 
riched with  inlaid  or  painted  ornaments;  the  tops  also 
admit  of  great  elegance." 

"  Pembroke-tables  are  the  most  useful  of  this  species  of 
furniture;  they  may  be  of  various  shapes.  The  long, 
square  and  oval  are  the  most  fashionable."  The  tops  are 
"  inlaid,  painted,  or  varnished."  As  a  rule,  there  is  a 
drawer  below  the  top,  the  leaves  or  flaps  of  which  fall  on 
either  side,  as  is  shown  in  the  example  on  Plate  CXIV. 
from  the  Metropolitan  Museum. 

Heppelwhite's  dressing-tables  were  remarkable  for  their 
ingenious  arrangements  of  compartments  for  pins,  combs, 
essences,  jewelry  and  other  articles  for  beautifying  the 
person.  He  also  had  ingenious  arrangements  for  causing 
the  looking-glasses  to  rise  from  the  slabs  and  drawers  and 

231 


Furniture 

swing  easily  on  hinges.  His  shaving-tables  were  also  mar- 
vels of  convenience. 

Heppelwhite  described  "  Rudd's  Dressing-table  "  as  "  the 
most  complete  dressing-table  ever  made,  possessing  every 
convenience  which  can  be  wanted.  It  derives  its  name  from 
a  once  popular  character  from  whom  it  was  reported  it  was 
invented."  In  this  piece  of  furniture  the  drawers  could  be 
made  to  swing  about  in  any  desired  position,  when  the 
owner  was  dressing. 

Library-tables  were  from  3  to  4  feet  long,  of  mahogany, 
and  covered  on  top  with  leather  or  green  cloth.  Some  have 
cupboards  in  front  for  books  or  papers.  Then  there  was  a 
tambour  writing-table  and  bookcase  which  was  supplied 
with  three  drawers  and  a  cylinder  tambour-shutter  that 
rolled  back,  revealing  pigeon-holes  and  a  writing-desk  and 
nests  of  drawers.  The  upper  part  was  a  bookcase  or  series 
of  shelves  enclosed  by  two  doors. 

Pier-tables  were  "  made  to  fit  the  pier  and  rise  level  with 
or  above  the  dado  of  the  room,  nearly  touching  the  orna- 
ments of  the  glass.'*  Above  the  pier-table  the  mirror  hung, 
"  fixed  very  low,"  nearly  reaching  the  slab  of  the  pier-table. 

In  the  dining-room  Heppelwhite  called  for  "  a  set  of 
dining-tables."  This  comprised  a  central,  square  table,  and 
two  semi-circular  tables,  which  were  used  to  extend  the 
square  table  (one  being  placed  at  each  end).  When  not 
\n  use,  they  stood  between  the  windows,  like  the  pier-tables 
in  the  drawing-room. 

Sheraton  also  designed  every  variety  of  table,  and  among 
them  novelties,  for  he  kept  up  with  and  changed  with  the 
fashions  of  the  time.  Like  Heppelwhite  he  considered  pier- 
tables  as  indispensable  to  the  furnishing  of  a  fashionable 
drawing-room.     He  says : 

"  The  pier-tables  have  marble  tops  and  gold  frames,  or 
white  and  gold.     The  glasses  are  often  made  to  appear  to 

232 


Plate  CXII 

Eighteenth  Century  Tables:  Mahogany  Tea-Table  "Tip  and 

Turn"  with  "Pie-crust"  edge;  Mahogany  Drop-leaf  Table; 

Chippendale  Tea-Table  with   Pierced   Gallery;   Chippendale 

Tea-Table  with  Pierced  Gallery 


Tables 

come  down  to  the  stretcher  of  the  table;  that  is,  a  piece  of 
glass  is  fixed  in  behind  the  pier-table,  separate  from  the 
upper  glass,  and  by  reflection  makes  the  table  appear  double. 
The  small  piece  of  glass  may  be  fixed  either  in  the  dado  of 
the  room,  or  on  the  frame  of  the  table.  As  pier-tables  are 
merely  for  ornament  under  a  glass  they  are  generally  made 
very  light,  and  the  style  of  finishing  them  is  rich  and 
elegant.  Sometimes  the  tops  are  solid  marble,  but  most 
commonly  veneered  in  rich  satin  or  other  valuable  wood, 
with  a  cross-band  on  the  outside,  a  border  about  two  inches, 
richly  japanned,  and  a  narrow  cross-band  beyond  it,  to  go 
all  round.  The  frames  are  commonly  gold,  or  white,  or 
burnished  gold.  Stretching  rails  have  of  late  been  intro- 
duced to  these  tables,  and  it  must  be  owned  that  it  is  with 
good  effect,  as  they  take  off  the  long  appearance  of  the  legs 
and  make  the  under  part  appear  more  finished  ;  beside,  they 
afford  an  opportunity  of  fixing  a  vase  or  basket  of  flowers, 
which,  with  their  reflection  when  there  is  a  glass  behind,  pro- 
duce a  brilliant  appearance.  Some,  in  place  of  a  stretcher, 
have  a  thin  marble  shelf  with  a  brass  rim  round  it,  supported  , 
by  a  light  frame ;  in  which  case  the  top  ought  to  be  of  marble 
also." 

The  Pembroke-table  is  still  in  favor,  and  differs  little 
from  the  Pembroke  made  by  Heppelwhite.  "  It  is  used," 
says  Sheraton,  "  for  a  gentleman  or  lady  to  breakfast  on. 
The  style  of  finishing  these  tables  is  very  neat,  sometimes 
bordering  upon  elegance,  being  at  times  made  of  satin-wood, 
and  having  richly  japanned  borders  round  their  tops  with 
ornamental  drawer  fronts."  Another  variety,  called  the 
Harlequin  Pembroke-table,  supplied  with  ingenious  ma- 
chinery and  containing  a  nest  of  drawers  that  could  be 
raised  any  height,  "  serves,"  Sheraton  informs  us,  "  not 
only  as  a  breakfast-table  but  also  as  a  writing-table,  very 
suitable  for  a  lady." 

233 


Furniture 

Sheraton  was  particularly  happy  in  his  designs  for  dainty 
furniture  for  ladies.  The  Ladies'  Cabinet  Dressing-Table, 
for  instance,  which  appeared  to  be  an  ordinary  commode, 
had  on  top  a  case  or  nest  of  drawers,  innumerable  little 
drawers  fitted  up  with  all  the  conveniences  necessary  for  a 
lady's  toilet,  a  cabinet  in  which  she  could  keep  her  rings 
and  other  jewels,  and  glasses  that  folded  in  behind  little 
doors  in  the  most  ingenious  fashion.  Under  one  of  the 
drawers  a  slider  was  concealed,  which  could  be  drawn  for- 
ward, when  the  fair  owner  wanted  to  write.  A  special 
drawer  contained  materials  for  writing.  Work-tables  also 
attracted  his  attention.  Many  of  them  were  writing-desks 
as  well,  and  contained  an  astonishing  number  of  compart- 
ments arranged  with  great  economy  of  space.  His  "  French 
work-table "  was  generally  made  of  satin-wood,  with  a 
brass  moulding  around  the  edge.  In  his  "  Pouch  tables,'' 
made  about  1803,  a  work-bag  is  attached  to  the  frame 
which  draws  forward.  "  When  required  to  be  elegant," 
Sheraton  remarks,  "  black  rosewood  is  used ;  otherwise 
they  may  be  very  neat  of  mahogany."  In  some  of  them  the 
top  is  a  chess-board. 

Shaving-stands  and  dressing-glasses  for  gentlemen  were 
equally  convenient  and  well  planned.  Like  Heppelwhite, 
Sheraton  makes  great  use  of  the  tambour-shutter  for  his 
bason  stands,  night  stands  and  dressing-tables. 

"  Tambour  tables,"  he  explains,  "  among  cabinet-makers, 
are  of  two  sorts  —  one  for  a  lady  or  gentleman  to  write  at ; 
and  another  for  the  former  to  execute  needlework  by.  The 
Writing  Tambour  Tables  are  almost  out  of  use  at  present, 
being  both  insecure  and  liable  to  injury.  They  are  called 
Tambour  from  the  cylindrical  forms  of  their  tops,  which 
are  glued  up  in  narrow  strips  of  mahogany  and  laid  upon 
canvas  which  binds  them  together,  and  suffers  them,  at  the 
same  time  to  yield  to  the  motion  their  ends  make  in  the 

234 


*»*■.*•.   **••   »«    ' 


Plate  CXIII 

Mahogany  Card-Table;  Mahogany  Writing-Desk;  Mahogany 
Dumb-Waiter;  Mahogany  Spoon-Case  and  Knife-Boxes 


Tables 

curved  groove  in  which  they  run,  so  that  the  top  may- 
be brought  round  to  the  front,  and  pushed  at  pleasure  to 
the  back  again  when  required  to  be  open.  Tambour  tables 
are  often  introduced  in  small  pieces  of  work  when  no  great 
strength  or  security  is  required." 

Of  the  Kidney  library  table  Sheraton  says :  "  This  piece 
is  termed  a  kidney-table  on  account  of  its  resemblance  to 
that  intestine  part  of  animal  so  called.  The  drawers  are 
strong  and  cross-banded  with  mahogany  laid  up  and  down. 
The  pilasters  are  panelled,  or  cross-banded,  and  the  feet 
are  turned."    In  France  this  shape  is  called  haricot. 

Sheraton  gives  a  great  many  designs  of  tables  that  are 
appropriate  for  the  breakfast-room  and  library.  These 
include  card-tables  and  what  he  calls  the  sofa-table. 

The  dining-table  of  Sheraton's  time  was  oblong,  round, 
or  oval,  and  usually  supported  on  the  pillar-and-claw.  It 
was  of  mahogany  and  was  accompanied  by  mahogany 
chairs  covered  with  leather. 

The  extension  dining-table,  with  extra  leaves,  had  not 
come  into  existence. 

In  1 797,  among  the  furniture  sold  at  Christie's,  we  note : 
"  a  large  mahogany  two-flap  dining-table ;  a  two-flap 
spider-leg  table;    and  a  mahogany  oval  dining-table." 

In  the  middle  of  the  Prince  of  Wales's  dining-parlor 
in  Carlton  House  stood  a  large  range  of  dining-tables, 
standing  on  pillars  with  four  claws  each,  which  Shera- 
ton adds,  "  is  now  the  fashionable  way  of  making  these 
tables." 

"  The  common  useful  dining-tables,"  Sheraton  says, 
"  are  upon  pillars  and  claws,  generally  four  claws  to  each 
pillar,  with  brass  casters.  A  dining-table  of  this  kind  may 
be  made  to  any  size  by  having  a  sufficient  quantity  of  pillar 
and  claw  parts,  for  between  each  of  these  there  is  a  loose 
flap,  fixed  by  means  of  iron  straps  and  buttons,  so  that 

235 


Furniture 

they  are  easily  taken  off  and  put  aside;  and  the  beds  may 
be  joined  to  each  other  with  brass  fork  or  strap  fastenings. 
The  sizes  of  dining-tables,"  he  continues,  **  for  certain 
numbers  may  easily  be  calculated  by  allowing  two  feet  to 
each  person  sitting  at  table;  less  than  this  cannot,  with 
comfort,  be  dispensed  with.  A  table,  six  feet  by  three,  on 
a  pillar  and  claws,  will  admit  of  eight  persons,  one  only  at 
each  end,  and  three  on  each  side." 

Sheraton  also  designed  a  number  of  dumb-waiters,  sup- 
plied with  shelves,  drawers,  trays,  and  holes  for  decanters, 
and  also  a  supper  tray  called  a  "  Canterbury  "  that  was 
'*  made  to  stand  by  a  table  at  supper  with  a  circular  end 
and  three  partitions  crosswise,  to  hold  knives,  forks  and 
plates,  at  that  end,  which  is  made  circular  on  purpose." 
This  piece  of  furniture  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  an 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 

Another  convenient  form  of  table  that  Sheraton  notes  in 
his  books  is  the  group  of  small  tables  with  very  light  frames. 
When  not  in  use,  these  stood  one  within  the  other.  They 
were  known  as  quartette  or  trio  tables;  and  another  name 
was  rout-tables,  for  they  were  used,  like  the  rout-chairs 
"  at  routs  and  other  entertainments." 

It  was  not  until  the  year  1800  that  Richard  Gillow  of 
London  invented  and  patented  the  telescope  arrangement, 
which,  with  slight  improvements,  is  still  in  use  in  the  present 
day.  Gillow's  patent  is  described  as  "  an  improvement  in 
the  method  of  constructing  dining  and  other  tables  cal- 
culated to  reduce  the  number  of  legs,  pillars  and  claws, 
and  to  facilitate  and  render  easy,  their  enlargement  and 
reduction." 

During  the  Empire  tables  were  made  in  the  French 
modes.  The  drawing-room  table  was  either  round  or  oval 
and  stood  on  four  feet,  decorated  with  lions*  heads, 
chimaerae,  or  sphinxes,  or  the  pillar-and-claw.     It  was  sup- 

236 


•  »-  • !    ..• :  •. 


.•,•••.:..: ;    •••  ••.••• 


•  •••  •  •< 


Plate,  CXI  V 

Heppelwhite  Pembroke  Table  and  Empire  Console-Table 

Metropolitan  Museum 


Tables 

plied  with  a  marble  top,  and  on  this  stood  a  lamp  with  a 
shade.     A  table  cloth  was  frequently  used  in  England. 

The  console  was  a  large  square  table  much  like  that  of 
the  last  days  of  Louis  XVI.  It  was  decorated  more  or  less 
ornately  with  gilded  bronze.  Sometimes  a  mirror  was 
placed  at  the  back,  which  was  framed  by  the  legs;  and 
sometimes  the  tops  of  the  legs  are  carved  into  the  form  of 
sphinxes,  or  the  heads  of  sphinxes,  or  other  masks.  (See 
Plate  CXIV.) 

The  tea-table  was  very  ornate;  and  the  jardiniere,  or 
table  a  Heurs,  was  often  vase-shaped  and  supported  by 
sphinxes.  It  was  by  no  means  an  exceptional  adornment 
in  a  drawing-room  or  sitting-room. 

Mr.  John  Stafford,  an  eminent  upholsterer  of  Bath, 
who  designed  and  made  so  much  fashionable  furniture  of 
his  day,  was  responsible  for  a  flower  stand  that  was  de- 
scribed in  Ackermann's  Repository  in  1819  as  follows: 

"  The  jardiniere  forms  a  proper  ornament  for  such  a 
situation,  and  is  rendered  particularly  interesting  by  a  font 
of  gold  and  silver  fish,  and  by  a  small  aviary  for  choice 
singing  birds :  the  style  is  French  and  the  article  similar  in 
design  to  those  executed  in  Paris  under  the  direction  of 
Mons.  Percier,  the  architect." 

In  1822,  we  read  in  the  same  publication  accompanying 
a  design :  "  The  flower-stand  forms  an  elegant  piece  of 
furniture  in  oak,  with  bronze  ornaments,  the  top  being 
calculated  to  receive  large  drooping  plants  and  a  lamp,  or 
glass  with  gold  fish;  either  way,  as  a  whole,  it  is  perfect 
in  its  form  and  will  be  found  to  add  much  to  the  beauty  of 
a  small  entrance  hall." 

Receptacles  for  displaying  flowers  in  the  chief  apartments 
of  well-furnished  dwellings  are  always  in  request,  and  they 
admit  an  infinite  variety  of  form  and  decoration  from  the 
simplest  monopede  to  the  most  magnificent  assemblage  of 

237 


Furniture 

stages.  The  present  design  is  suited  to  a  drawing-room  or 
boudoir,  being  executed  in  choice  woods  and  or  moulu;  in 
which  case  the  reservoir  should  be  hned  with  thin  milled 
lead,  to  contain  water,  over  which  a  silver  network  should 
be  placed  in  a  rounding  form,  to  support  the  flowers  and 
display  them  to  advantage :  from  the  reservoir  a  pipe  should 
be  affixed,  so  that  it  may  be  readily  emptied,  otherwise  the 
stagnant  water  and  vegetable  matter  speedily  become 
offensive  for  want  of  change. 

"  Flowers  admirably  harmonize  with  glass;  and  if  in  the 
present  design  all  the  receptacles  were  made  in  that  material, 
beautifully  cut  in.  the  splendid  fashion  now  in  use,  the 
design  would  be  very  ornamental,  and  one  in  each  corner 
of  the  drawing-room  might  be  well  displayed,  particularly 
if  constructed  as  a  tripod.  Many  such  articles  of  furniture 
have  been  executed  lately  by  the  Blades  of  Ludgate  Hill." 

In  the  inventories  of  prosperous  and  wealthy  Americans 
and  also  in  the  advertisements  of  cabinet-makers  and  shop- 
keepers, we  find  innumerable  notices  of  tables  that  show 
how  closely  fashions  were  followed  on  this  side  of  the 
ocean  with  regard  to  this  piece  of  furniture  as  well  as 
every  other  form.  For  example,  from  the  announcements 
of  the  years  1823-5,  we  gather  the  following: 

Claw  table  stands;  pillar-and-claw-foot  breakfast-tables; 
card-tables;  card  and  pier  and  Pembroke-tables  to  match 
with  marble  slabs;  a  pair  polished  card-tables;  six  cases 
elegant  tops  of  centre  tables,  with  landscape  views  in  Rome, 
etc.,  painted  in  a  superior  style  and  lately  imported  from 
Italy;  elegant  pier-tables  with  marble  pillars;  pillar-and- 
claw-foot  tables;  two  superb  pier-tables,  imitation  rose- 
wood, very  handsomely  gilded,  one  centre  table  with  marble 
slab;  pier-tables  with  marble  slabs  and  columns  and  Pem- 
broke-tables. 


238 


VI 
MIRRORS.      SCREENS.      CLOCKS 

The  Mirror 

UNTIL  the  Thirteenth  Century,  mirrors  were  made 
of  burnished  metal.  The  first  looking-glasses  with 
silvered  backs  were  merely  small  mirrors  destined 
to  hang  on  a  lady's  chatelaine.  In  the  Sixteenth  Century, 
the  art  of  silvering  the  back  was  brought  to  perfection  in 
Murano;  and  not  long  after  those  celebrated  glass-works 
were  in  operation,  the  French,  Germans  and  English  all 
stepped  into  the  field,  and  began  to  make  looking-glasses 
with  more  or  less  success.  The  French  and  English,  how- 
ever, achieved  the  best  results  in  imitating  the  Venetian 
work.  About  the  Sixteenth  Century,  glasses  with  beveled 
sides  (d  biseau)  were  made  in  Venice  and  frames  became 
of  great  importance. 

Sometimes  they  were  very  architectural  and  carved  in 
the  most  ornate  fashion.  The  handsome  mirror  on  Plate 
CXV.,  from  the  Cluny  Museum,  is  Italian  work  of  the 
Sixteenth  Century,  and  exhibits  in  its  carving  the  fanciful 
ideas  of  the  Renaissance.  Here  we  have  flowers,  fruits, 
foliage  and  strange  birds,  as  well  as  Cupids  and  other 
mythological  figures.  The  two  satyrs,  one  blowing  a  horn 
and  the  other  a  pipe,  on  the  pediment,  are  finely  sculptured. 
It  is,  however,  all  frame  and  very  little  mirror,  as  was  the 
general  treatment  of  the  time.  The  whole  frame  is  carved 
and  gilt. 

239 


Furniture 

A  French  authority  tells  us  that  "  In  Italy  they  were 
developed  in  redundant  foliage,  supporting  figures  of 
geniuses;  or  crowned  with  a  pyramidal  composition  on 
which  appeared  the  escutcheon  of  the  owner;  others  were 
sculptured  in  hard  wood,  such  as  oak,  the  most  perfect  of 
these  works  being  gilded  on  the  bare  wood  with  a  species 
of  bright  gold  called  ducat  gold;  others  were  coated  with 
that  white  paste  which  is  still  used  and  gilded  on  a  light 
impression  of  vermilion. 

"  A  great  change  took  place  under  Louis  XIV ;  Venice 
and  its  mirrors  were  left  far  behind;  and  after  having 
vainly  endeavored  to  bring  over  workmen  from  Murano 
to  found  a  manufactory  of  glass  in  the  faubourg  St. 
Antoine,  Colbert  learned  that  one  already  existed  in  regular 
working  order  at  Tourlaville  near  Cherbourg.  The  minister 
sent  for  Lucas  de  Nehou,  the  director,  to  take  in  hand 
the  royal  manufactory  of  glasses.  Shortly  after,  he  was 
able  to  send  from  it  the  splendid  decorations  of  the  galerie 
des  fetes  for  Versailles.  Thenceforth,  it  could  no  longer 
be  a  question  of  counterbalancing  the  minute  dimensions 
of  the  mirror  by  the  development  of  its  frame;  the  latter, 
therefore,  underwent  a  transformation,  and,  like  the 
borders  of  wainscotings,  was  reduced  to  delicate  arabesque 
combinations  connected  by  wreaths  of  flowers,  relieved  by 
masks  and  palmettes,  or  by  shells  and  acanthus  foliage. 
Notwithstanding  the  increased  dimensions  of  the  glasses 
their  effect  was  still  more  heightened  by  inlaid  pieces.  Thus 
sections  of  glass  were  ranged  at  each  corner  of  the  principal 
sheet  of  glass,  whether  oval  or  rectangular,  then  pieces  to 
form  a  border,  and  others  forming  a  pediment  at  the  top, 
and  a  pendant  towards  the  base;  gilded  and  carved  wood 
united  them  all,  hiding  the  joints  by  ingenious  intersections, 
and  furnishing  the  architectural  framework  with  its  chief 
designs,  its  stems  and  wreaths,  its  crowned  masks,  requisite 

240 


.:   ^  %'   '  ?y\ 


Plate  CXV 

Sixteenth  Century  Italian  Mirror 

Cluny  Museum 


Mirrors 

for  consolidating  the  masses  and  giving  points  of  attraction 
to  the  eye.  These  sculptures  are  of  extreme  elegance  of 
composition  arid  of  great  delicacy  of  workmanship." 

Therefore,  the  mirror  was  now  seen  in  every  home  and 
in  every  room.  Several,  indeed,  were  often  hung  in  one 
room.  One,  of  course,  was  placed  over  the  chimney-piece, 
which  was  adorned  with  a  handsome  clock,  on  either  side 
of  which  stood  a  gilt  candelabrum  of  several  arms.  These, 
reflected  into  the  glass,  added  brilliancy  to  the  room,  and 
were  reflected  back  and  forth  by  the  pier-glasses  between 
the  windows. 

In  the  bedrooms,  of  course,  a  mirror  hung  over  the 
dressing-table,  or  stood  upon  it. 

Two  large  looking-glasses,  with  green  ebony  frames,  and 
two  other  large  looking-glasses  appear  in  the  inventory 
of  a  wealthy  lady  of  the  period,  who  also  possessed  a  table 
of  "  calembour  ^  wood,  which  encloses  a  toilet  of  the 
same  wood,  ornamented  with  gold,  containing  two  dressing- 
boxes  and  looking-glass,  one  pin  cushion,  one  powder- 
box,  and  two  brushes  of  the  same." 

The  Duke  of  Buckingham  started  a  factory  in  Lambeth 
about  1670,  and  sent  for  the  best  glass-makers,  glass- 
grinders,  and  polishers  from  Venice,  which,  we  are  told, 
"  succeeded  so  well  as  to  be  now  enabled  to  send  to  that 
very  place  and  to  every  other  part  of  Europe,  and  to 
Asia,  Africa  and  America,  the  finest  glass  of  all  sorts  that 
the  world  can  produce."  In  1677  Evelyn  notes  of  a  visit  to 
Lambeth :  '*  We  also  saw  the  Duke  of  Buckingham's  glass- 
works, where  they  made  huge  vases  of  metal  as  clear, 
ponderous  and  thick  as  crystal;  also  looking-glasses  far 
larger  and  better  than  any  that  come  from  Venice." 

The  Vauxhall  Plate  Glass  factory  was  in  operation  until 

1  Calembour,  or  eagle-wood,  a  sweet-scented  species  of  aloes  that 
comes  from  the  East. 

241 


Furniture 

1780.  Charles  II.  forbade  the  importation  of  any  kind 
of  glass;  and  this,  of  course,  gave  a  strong  incentive  to 
native  talent.  The  secrets  of  manufacture  were  guarded, 
but  glass  was  made  in  Vauxhall  in  much  the  same  manner 
as  in  Murano.  The  largest  plates  measured  four  feet ;  and 
when  a  larger  mirror  was  required,  two  or  more  pieces 
of  glass  were  used.  Small  mirrors  were  also  often  made 
in  two  sections.  Many  of  these  Vauxhall  mirrors  were 
exported  to  America. 

At  first  the  frames  were  of  ebony,  olive-wood  and 
walnut;  at  the  end  of  the  Seventeenth  Century  lacquered 
frames  were  popular  and  soft  wood  carved  and  gilded,  or 
a  composition  of  something  like  plaster  of  Paris,  moulded 
and  gilt. 

About  the  time  of  the  Restoration,  decorative  frames 
were  made.  At  first  they  were  architectural  in  character; 
but  later  they  became  simpler  and  were  often  but  a  narrow 
margin  or  "  list "  of  walnut,  or  ebony,  or  wood  stained 
black  to  represent  ebony.  The  glass  was  usually  beveled 
and  the  outline  of  the  bevel  followed  the  curves  of  the  inner 
frame.  The  Vauxhall  plates  were  small;  and,  therefore, 
the  mirrors  were  often  in  two  pieces,  the  larger  one  at  the 
base  and  the  smaller  one,  forming  a  sort  of  panel,  at  the 
top.  The  upper  panel  was  finished  with  a  dull  surface, 
and  figures  and  patterns  were  cut  in  the  back  of  the  glass, 
producing  an  effect  like  that  of  embossed  work  or  gem- 
cutting.  Sometimes  two  or  three  plates  were  framed 
together  and  the  joints  hidden  by  bands  of  gilded  wood, 
or  metal,  like  the  outside  frame,  or  by  strips  of  colored 
glass. 

The  great  carver,  Grinling  Gibbons,  made  a  number  of 
exquisite  mirror- frames  with  beautifully  executed  flowers 
and  fruits;  but  the  richly  carved  frame  of  his  style  soon 
changed   for  that  of  Louis  XIV.     French  mirrors  were 

242 


Mirrors 

now  imported  into  England.  Many  Huguenot  refugee 
workmen  now  made  frames  in  England  in  the  French 
style  and  after  designs  of  Marot.  Instead  of  the  great 
wreath  of  flowers  and  fruits,  the  decoration  motives  were 
heavy  garlands  of  the  bell-flower,  the  scroll,  the  mascaron 
and  the  urn. 

When  the  Dutch  styles  came  in  with  William  and  Mary 
the  mirror  frames  were  often  inlaid  with  colored  woods  in 
the  new  taste. 

A  Queen  Anne  mirror,  oblong  in  shape,  with  elegantly 
carved  gilt  frame,  the  design  being  foliage  and  gadrooning, 
was  recently  sold  in  London  for  £26;  and  one  of  the  Wil- 
liam III.  period  in  English  marquetry  frame,  with  flowers 
and  foliage,  beautifully  inlaid  in  colored  woods  and  ivory 
on  a  walnut  ground,  for  £43. 

The  mirror  was  equally  if  not  still  more  important  in 
the  days  of  Louis  XV.  The  frames  are  most  ornate  for 
pier-glasses,  smaller  mirrors  and  sconce  arms  which  often 
encircle  or  spring  from  the  frame  of  a  looking-glass.  The 
decorators  of  the  day  give  many  designs  in  which  the  curve 
is  exhibited  in  every  possible  contortion.  There  are  leafy 
scrolls,  chutes  of  leaves  and  husks,  shells,  mascarons, 
flowery  branches,  crawling  dragons,  serpents,  monkeys  and 
mythological  figures  that  are  more  and  more  fantastically 
treated  until  the  styles  change  again. 

Chippendale,  being  a  carver,  naturally  delighted  in 
designing  frames  for  pictures  and  mirrors.  In  his  day 
the  tall  pier-glasses  between  the  windows  were  as  important 
as  the  mantel-glass,  and  were  frequently  carved  to  cor- 
respond. Moreover,  the  girandoles  that  carried  the  side 
lights  for  the  drawing-room  and  dining-room  and  which 
were  hung  on  either  side  of  the  mantel-piece,  were  also 
furnished  with  a  looking-glass,  not  only  for  ornament,  but 
for  the  purpose  of  reflecting  the  lights  of  the  candles  and 

243 


Furniture 

rendering  the  room  more  brilliant.  Chippendale's  frames 
naturally  show  him  when  he  is  perhaps  in  his  most  character- 
istic moods.  They  bristle  with  spiky  leaves  in  which 
long-tailed,  long-beaked  birds  peck  at  scrolls,  leaves,  and 
icicles,  and  sometimes  squawk  at  mandarins  standing  under 
pagodas.  Subjects  from  mythology  and  ^sop's  Fables 
are  blended  with  Chinese  motives  or  the  fantastic  scroll 
and  leaf-work  of  the  Louis  XV.  Style  which  Chippendale 
used  so  beautifully.  He  was  very  clever  —  as  clever  as  the 
French  designers  —  in  making  the  sconce-arms  emerge 
from  the  leaves  or  scrolls  in  natural  and  graceful  sweeps. 

The  Chippendale  mirrors  are  frequently  in  several 
divisions;  but  the  union  of  the  separate  plates  is  always 
hidden  under  the  foliage  or  the  rock  and  shell-work.  Chip- 
pendale mirrors  now  bring  large  prices.  Within  the  past 
five  years  the  following  sums  have  been  realized  in  London : 

A  Chippendale  gilt  mirror,  with  three  lights,  5  feet,  6 
inches  high  and  4  feet  wide,  scroll  frame  with  floral  border, 
£89;  a  pair  of  Chippendale  girandole  mirrors,  4  feet,  5 
inches  high,  i  foot,  5  inches  wide,  gilt  and  carved  in  Gothic 
design,  £2"]-,  a  pair  of  Chippendale  mirrors,  8  feet  long,  3 
feet,  6  inches  wide,  with  Vauxhall  plates  in  two  divisions, 
scroll  and  floral  carved  frame,  surmounted  with  masks, 
£79;  a  Chippendale  mirror,  carved  and  gilt,  7  feet,  four 
inches  long,  4  feet,  2  inches  wide,  90  guineas;  a  Chippen- 
dale bevel-edged  mirror,  7  feet  high,  3  feet  wide,  upright 
black  frame  with  festoons  of  flowers,  foliage,  rosettes, 
acorns,  and  arabesques  in  relief,  38  guineas. 

Cornices  were  also  carved  in  sympathy  with  the  mirrors, 
and  other  furniture  and  wood- work  of  the  room.  In  the 
bedrooms  the  window-curtains  matched  those  of  the  bed. 

The  American  colonists  always  kept  up  with  the  latest 
fashions  in  England.  In  the  wealthy  houses  of  both  North 
and  South  the  newest  styles  in  silver  and  furniture  were  al- 

244 


Plate  CXVI 

Chippendale  Gilt  Mirror  Frames;  Chippendale  Walnut  and 

Gilt  Mirror  Frame 

American  Gilt  Frame  Mirror  (1800-1825) 

Metropolitan  Museum 


Mirrors 

ways  to  be  seen.  In  the  early  days  when  mirrors  came  into 
use  in  England,  the  landed  proprietors  here  had  them  also. 
The  old  inventories  are  full  of  entries  of  looking-glasses 
with  olive-wood  frames,  looking-glasses  with  black  lists, 
etc.,  etc. ;  and  as  the  years  go  on  and  fashions  change,  the 
items  in  the  wills  and  inventories  show  that  the  rich  house- 
holders constantly  bought  the  newest  and  the  latest  articles 
in  furniture.  Even  if  this  were  not  the  case,  the  many 
advertisements  in  the  current  newspapers  of  importations 
from  London  and  the  many  cards 
from  carvers  and  gilders  and  looking- 
glass  makers  who  offer  to  remodel  old 
glasses,  cutting  them  into  the  correct 
shapes  and  sizes  and  framing  them  in 
the  newest  styles,  show  that  there  was 
a  great  demand  for  such  work.  A 
glance  through  the  old  New  York 
newspapers  shows  the  following  facts: 

In  1730  "James  Foddy,  Citizen  and  ^^SSeJ^bv  ZS""" 
Glass-seller  of  London,  who  arrived 
here  at  the  end  of  last  June  and  brought  with  him  a  parcel 
of  very  fine  looking-glasses  of  all  sorts,"  acquainted  the 
public  that  he  ^'  undertook  to  alter  and  amend  old  looking- 
glasses." 

In  1735  Mr.  Duyckinck,  at  the  Sign  of  the  Two  Cupids, 
near  the  Old  Slip  Market,  had  new  looking-glasses  and 
frames  plain  japanned  or  flowered. 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  chimney- 
glasses  with  carved  walnut  or  gilt  frames,  valued  at  from 
thirty  to  eighty  pounds,  were  not  uncommon  in  rich  New 
England  houses.  They  were  often  supplied  with  arms  for 
candles.  A  gilt-edged  walnut  frame  in  1748  is  valued  at 
120  pounds,  and  another  with  walnut  frame  and  brass 
arms  at  37  pounds,  10  shillings.    All  through  the  last  three- 

245 


Furniture 

quarters  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  mahogany  was  used 
for  frames,  and  also  pine-wood  stained  to  resemble 
mahogany.  Walnut  and  gilded  wood  was  a  very  popular 
combination  and  the  carved  and  gilded  frame  always  held 
its  own. 

Among  the  items  advertised  by  various  merchants  we 
see  gilt  and  plain  looking-glasses  of  sundry  sizes,  in  1745; 
japanned  dressing-glasses,  in  1748;  new  fashion  sconces 
and  looking-glasses,  in  1749;  looking-glass  sconces,  in 
1750;  sconces  and  pier-glasses  of  all  sizes,  in  1752;  an 
assortment  of  sconces,  gilt  and  carved  in  the  newest  fash- 
ions, in  1753;  newest  fashioned  looking-glasses  from 
London,  in  1757;  a  variety  of  sconces  with  branches  in 
walnut  frames  with  gilt  edges,  in  1757;  looking-glasses 
framed  in  the  newest  taste,  £8  to  £30  apiece,  in  1761; 
looking-glasses  from  2  to  6  feet,  in  1764;  convex  and  con- 
cave mirrors,  in  1764;  two  carved  white-framed  sconce 
glasses,  in  1764;  handsome  pier-glass  and  two  sconces 
with  gilt  frame,  in  1768;  large  pier-glass  in  an  elegant 
carved  frame,  in  1769;  painted  frame  looking-glasses, 
in  1773;  and  also  in  that  year  oval  glasses,  pier-glasses 
and  sconces  in  burnished  gold,  glass  bordered  and  mahog- 
any and  black  walnut  frames,  with  gilt  ornaments  of  all 
sizes. 

In  1769  Minshall,  a  carver  and  gilder  from  London, 
settled  in  Dock  Street  and  had  carved  frames  for  glasses; 
and  by  the  end  of  the  century  he  had  built  up  a  big  business 
in  this  special  line.  In  1775  Minshall's  Looking-glass  Store 
in  Hanover  Square,  opposite  Mr.  Goelet's  Sign  of  the 
Golden  Key,  advertised  "  an  elegant  assortment  of  looking- 
glasses,  in  oval  and  square  ornamental  frames;  ditto 
mahogany.  Also  an  elegant  assortment  of  frames  without 
glass.  Any  Lady  or  Gentleman  that  has  glass  in  old  fash- 
ioned frames  may  have  them  cut  to  ovals,  or  put  in  any  pat- 

246 


Mirrors 

tern  that  pleases  them  best.  The  above  frames  may  be 
finished  white,  or  green  and  white,  purple,  or  any  other 
color  that  suits  the  furniture  of  the  room,  or  gilt  in  oil,  or 
burnished  gold  equal  to  the  best  imported." 

The  mirrors  designed  by  the  Adam  brothers  are  light, 
graceful  and  charming,  and  Heppelwhite's  are  no  less  so. 
The  oval  mirror  now  becomes  of  great  importance,  and  also 
the  mirror  with  sconce-arms  which  Heppelwhite  calls 
"  girandole." 

Heppelwhite  was  fond  of  the  oval  mirror  with  the  light 
falling  bell-flower  used  as  a  festoon,  often  looped  from  a 
little  bracket  on  which  stood  a  small  urn.  Pier-glass  frames 
were  usually  square,  of  good  carved  work,  gilt  and  bur- 
nished. Heppelwhite  says  that  ''  they  should  be  made 
nearly  to  fill  the  pier.  They  must  be  fixed  very  low,  and 
the  panels  of  the  sides  are  frequently  made  of  various 
colored  glass." 

"  Girandoles,"  Heppelwhite  says,  "  admit  of  great  variety 
in  pattern  and  elegance;  they  are  usually  executed  of 
the  best  carved  work  —  gilt  and  burnished  in  parts.  They 
may  be  carved  and  colored  suitable  to  the  room." 

The  concave  and  convex  mirror  with  gilt  frames  and 
branches  for  candles  became  very  popular  in  Sheraton's 
day  and  they  lasted  for  many  decades.  Such  mirrors  were 
frequently  framed  in  black,  ornamented  with  gilt  balls, 
and  surmounted  by  a  gilt  eagle.  Many  of  these  are  pre- 
served in  old  American  homes. 

Another  style  in  great  favor  was  the  long  mirror. 
Sheraton  says: 

"  Glasses  for  chimney-pieces  run  various,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  fireplace  and  the  height  of  the  wall  above. 
To  save  expense,  they  are  sometimes  fitted  up  in  three 
plates  and  the  joints  of  the  glass  covered  with  small  gilt 
mouldings  or  plasters.     At  other  times  with  the  naked 

247 


Furniture 

joint  only.  When  they  are  of  one  plate,  the  frame  in 
general  is  made  bolder  and  more  elegant." 

Sheraton  also  says: 

"  In  elegant  rooms  the  chimney -glass  is  usually  carried 
to  the  under  side  of  the  cornice  of  the  ceiling;  but  to  reduce 
the  expense  of  the  plate,  sometimes  a  broadish  panel  is 
introduced  at  the  top  of  the  glass  with  a  frieze  and  cornice 
above  all,  included  in  the  frame  of  the  glass." 

"  The  most  generally  approved  pilasters  for  chimney  and 
pier-glasses  are  those  of  3,  5,  or  7  reeds  worked  bold; 
but  which,  in  my  opinion,  still  look  better  by  being  parted 
with  a  ground  one-third  of  the  width  of  the  reed,  which 
may  be  matted  to  relieve  the  burnished  reeds.  It  is  not 
unusual  to  have  a  twisting  branch  of  flowers,  or  a  ribband 
round  the  reeds  rising  upwards  and  terminating  in  some 
sort  of  Composite,  Corinthian  or  Ionic  capital.  The  panel 
above  the  glass  is  sometimes  made  quite  plain  and  covered 
with  silk  as  a  ground  for  drapery,  tacked  under  the  corner 
of  the  glass  to  match  that  of  the  windows." 

Looking-glasses  in  gilt,  mahogany  and  walnut  frames 
(1801);  elegant  gilt  frames  with  pillars,  balls,  enamelled 
frieze  and  eagle  tops  all  sizes,  mahogany  frames  of  all  kinds, 
gilt  and  plain,  made  in  the  most  fashionable  manner,  walnut 
and  satin-wood  frames,  nutwood,  enamelled  and  elegant 
gilt,  the  plates  70  by  50  inches  (1803);  German  looking- 
glasses  (1810)  ;  looking-glass,  square  pediment  and  double 
columns,  and  one,  ditto,  with  eagle  on  top  (1811)  ;  convex 
mirrors  handsomely  ornamented  from  London  (1811); 
dressing-glasses  and  convex  mirrors  from  12  to  24  inches 
in  diameter,  ornamented  in  a  most  superb  manner  with  six 
lights  (1812);  rich  gilt  frame  pier  and  match  mirrors 
(1823)  ;  rich  mantel  glass,  cost  $1,600  (1823),  and  convex 
mirrors  (1823). 

The  mirror  as  a  part  of  the  dressing-table  is  comparatively 

248 


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Screens 

modern.  In  the  Sixteenth  Century,  and  before,  the  dress- 
ing-table was  merely  a  simple  table  covered  with  a  cloth,  and 
over  it  spread  a  white  linen  or  lace  "  toilette."  Upon  it, 
or  above  it,  hung  a  mirror  the  frame  of  which  was  carved 
and  gilt,  or  olive-wood  or  ebony  or  wood  stained  black  to 
represent  ebony;    or,  in  wealthy  homes,  of  solid  silver. 

In  the  middle  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  the  little  oval, 
shield-shaped,  or  square  glass  that  stood  upon  one  or  two 
drawers,  was  a  separate  piece  of  furniture  and  was  placed 
on  a  chest  of  drawers  or  shaving-stand.  Sheraton  and 
Heppelwhite  frequently  added  looking-glasses  to  their 
dressing-tables  and  shaving-stands,  but  usually  connected 
them  in  drawers  with  mechanism  that  allowed  them  to  be 
elevated  or  hidden  at  pleasure.  In  the  Empire  period  the 
mirror  often  formed  a  part  of  the  dressing-table  and  the 
cheval,  or  glass  on  a  horse  frame,  also  became  popular. 

The  Screen 

Screens  are  of  three  kinds :  the  folding-screen  composed 
of  two,  three,  or  more  leaves;  the  screen  on  a  horse  frame; 
and  the  pole-screen  supported  on  a  rod.  The  folding-screen 
is  found  in  every  country,  with  a  more  or  less  decorated 
frame,  covered  with  leather,  tapestry,  silk,  velvet  damask, 
and  even  paper. 

In  the  days  of  Louis  XIV.  the  paravent,  or  folding-screen, 
and  the  ecran,  or  horse-screen,  were  in  every  room.  The 
material  was  usually  tacked  to  the  frame  with  large  gilt- 
headed  nails,  as  in  the  handsome  example  from  the  Cluny 
Museum  represented  on  Plate  CXVII.  This  belongs  to 
the  period  of  Louis  XIV.  The  wood-work  is  gilded,  and 
the  covering  of  petit  point  tapestry,  reminding  us  of  the 
Marot  designs.  On  the  same  plate  a  screen  of  the  next 
period  is  also  represented.    This  is  also  of  carved  and  gilded 

249 


Furniture 


wood  framing  a  piece  of  tapestry,  the  subject  of  which  is 
taken  from  ^sop's  Fables.  It  represents  the  Wolf  and  the 
Lamb  surrounded  by  flowers  and  shell-work  on  a  dark 
brown  ground.  In  general  form,  the  frame  resembles  the 
favorite  chair-backs  of  the  day. 

In  Chippendale's  book  we  find  that  the  screens  standing 
on  four  legs  are  called  "  horse  fire-screens."  Some  of  them 
fold  and  others  slide  up  and  down  in  a  groove. 
Chippendale  also  made  pole-screens.  Pole- 
screens  were  also  a  favorite  (see  Plate 
CXVIL). 

Heppelwhite's  horse  fire-screen  "  is  sup- 
ported by  uprights  standing  on  feet,  and  the 
screen  slides  up  and  down  in  grooves  in  these 
uprights."  The  framework  is  usually  mahog- 
any, and  the  screen  of  green  silk  or  needle- 
work. 

Heppelwhite's  "  Pole  fire-screen  "  is  made 
of  mahogany  or  japanned  wood,  and  "  may 
be  ornamented  variously  with  maps,  Chinese 
figures,  needlework,  etc.  The  screen  is  sus- 
pended on  the  pole  by  means  of  a  spring  in 
the  eye  through  which  the  pole  goes."  The 
two  outer  feet  were  often  loaded  with  lead  to  keep  them 
steady. 

Sheraton  has  similar  pole-screens;  and  he  also  gives 
designs  for  Tripod  Fire-Screens,  to  be  made  in  white  and 
gold,  mahogany  or  japanned.     Sheraton  says: 

"  The  rods  of  these  screens  are  all  supposed  to  have  a 
hole  through  them  and  a  pulley  let  in  near  the  top,  on 
which  the  line  passes,  and  a  weight  being  enclosed  in  the 
tassel,  the  screen  is  balanced  to  any  height.  The  rods  are 
often  made  square,  which,  indeed,  best  suits  those  which 
have  pulleys,  while  those  that  are  made  round,  have  only 

250 


POLE-SCREEN,   BY 
CHIPPENDALE 


'  >'  >      ' 


Plate  CXVIII 

Chippendale  Clock 


Clocks 

rings  and  springs.  Such  screens  as  have  very  fine  prints, 
commonly  have  a  glass  before  them.  In  which  case  a  frame 
is  made  with  a  rabbet  to  receive  the  glass  and  another  to 
receive  the  straining-frame,  to  prevent  it  from  breaking  the 
glass;  and  to  enclose  the  straining-frame  a  bead  is  mitred 
round." 

The  Clock 

In  the  history  of  modern  furniture  the  clock  is  of  little 
interest  until  the  pendulum  clock,  constructed  by  Huygens 
and  described  by  him  in  1658,  was  introduced.  Then  the 
long  pendulum  was  enclosed  in  the  tall  pedestal-shaped  box, 
and  it  quickly  found  favor  everywhere. 

Boulle  and  his  sons,  for  instance,  made  many  clock-cases, 
and  of  two  kinds:  clocks  that  were  destined  to  stand  on 
the  chimney-piece  or  on  brackets  and  long  case  clocks.  The 
latter  —  about  six  feet  high  —  wonderful  creations  of  mar- 
quetry cabinet-work  and  bronze  ornamentation. 

Marot  was  another  who  designed  clocks.  Tall  clocks, 
long  case  clocks,  and  clocks  that  stand  on  brackets  and 
pedestals  or  terms  appear  in  his  books.  Many  of  Marot 's 
clocks,  indeed,  standing  on  pedestals  or  terms,  appear  at 
first  glance  as  long  case  clocks ;  but  close  standing  shows  a 
break  between  the  base  of  the  clock  and  the  top  of  the 
pedestal. 

A  clock  and  pedestal  in  the  Wallace  Museum  (see  Plate 
CXIX.)  is  a  fine  example  of  the  decorative  art  of  the  tran- 
sition period  of  Louis  XIV.  to  the  Regency.  It  is  mar- 
quetry of  metal  on  tortoise-shell,  the  frame,  works  and 
ornaments  cast  and  chased  in  the  Boulle  atelier.  The  sub- 
ject of  the  medallion  on  the  pedestal  is  Hercules  taking  the 
world  on  his  shoulders  while  Atlas  goes  to  get  the  golden 
apples  of  the  Hesperides. 

251 


Furniture 

In  the  Wallace  Collection  there  is  also  a  handsome  clock 
and  cabinet  or  vitrine  in  various  woods,  with  groups  and 
mounts  of  gilt  bronze,  cast  and  chased,  and  signed  Herve 
a  Paris.  It  is  a  fine  example  of  the  style  of  the  Regency. 
On  either  side  of  the  clock  are  groups  of  a  boar  and  a 
stag  being  worried  by  dogs;  and  above  it  sits  Diana 
patting  a  hound,  while  Cupid  tries  to  deprive  her  of  her 
spear. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  there  was 
quite  a  rage  for  japanned  cases.  The  decorations  were, 
of  course,  Oriental  designs  similar  to  those  on  the  high  case 
of  drawers  on  Plate  XXIV.  A  very  handsome  clock  of  this 
kind  is  preserved  in  the  Boston  Museum  of  Art. 

Mahogany  cases  in  the  Chippendale  Style  were  in  great 
favor.  The  one  represented  on  Plate  CXVIII.  is  8  feet,  3 
inches  high  and  2  feet,  i  inch  wide.  The  case  is  orna- 
mented with  carved  lattice-work  and  boldly  pierced  columns 
at  the  corners,  supporting  a  frieze  of  lattice-work  and  arches 
above  which  is  a  small  toothed  cornice.  The  face  is  en- 
closed in  a  band  of  carved  lattice- work  with  arched  top, 
and  with  pierced  tapering  square-shaped  columns  at  the 
angles,  supporting  a  scroll-shaped  lattice  and  dental  pedi- 
ment terminating  in  rosettes,  with  low  plinth  in  the  centre 
and  a  metal  gilt  ball  with  steeple  top  at  each  side.  The  base 
has  a  square  panel  bordered  by  a  broad  band  of  lattice- work, 
and  carved  with  broken  masonry  at  the  angles  in  relief. 

In  Sheraton's  first  book  he  gives  a  number  of  designs 
for  tall  clock-cases  "  painted  and  japanned,"  but  in  1803 
he  says  that  he  has  given  no  design  of  the  tall  clock-case 
as  "  these  pieces  are  almost  obsolete  in  London,"  but  intends 
to  do  so  in  his  large  work  "  to  serve  my  country  friends." 

Regarding  the  more  fashionable  bracket  he  writes: 

"  Clock-brackets  are  used  to  place  small  time  pieces  upon, 
when  there  is  no  other  convenient  place;    but   in   good 

252 


Plate  CXIX 

Boulle  Clock  and  Pedestal,  late  Louis  XIV.  to  Regency 
Wallace  Gallery 


Clocks 

rooms  the  chimney  caps  are  made  broad,  of  marble,  and 
serve  very  advantageously  to  place  a  clock  on.  Sometimes 
they  stand  upon  commodes,  at  the  end  of  the  room,  facing 
the  fire-place;  but  when  these  conveniences  are  wanting,  a 
bracket  supplies  their  place." 


253 


INDEX 


Acacia,  i 

Acorn  bulbs,  159,  188,  222 

Adam,  James,  74 

Robert,  74 
Adams,  The,  66 
Adam  Style,  73-6 

cabinets,  135 

mirrors,  247 

table,  •75-6 
Addison,  quoted,  55 
iEsop,  65,  191,  244,  250 
Albany  Institute  and  Historical  and 

i^t  Society,  233 
Alcove-beds,  163,  166,  170 
Alnwick  Church,  98 
Amaranth,  46,  139,  143,  211,  228 
Amber,  29,  130,  131 
Amsterdam,  38 
Andrea  del  Sarto,  14,  loi 
Anglaise,  213 
Anglo-Dutch  chairs,  189 

desk,  147 
Anglo-Saxon  beds,  151 
Animal  forms  in  furniture,  i,  2,  3,  5, 

174,  179 
Animal  feet,  179,  180 

heads,  184,  187 
Anne  of  Austria,  43,  45 
Anne  of  Brittany,  113 
Anthemion,  3,  45 
Antique  style,  83,  204 
Antwerp,  128 
Apple  and  apples,  24,  30  . 
Arabesques,  16,  24 
Armarium,  105 
Armoire,  18,  104-7,  "3»  116, 124, 141, 

143 


Louis  XV.,  107 

V.  de  Vries,  ii6 

d  deux  corps,  106,  148 

en  secretaire  (bed),  168 
Area,  95 
Arche,  95 
Ark,  97 
Amoult,  61 
Arphe,  Juan  de,  21 
Arras,  152 
Ash,  3,  24 

Assyrian  chairs,  174-5 
Attributes,  floral,  142 

pastoral,  69,  71,  194 
Aubusson,  195 
Augsburg,  131 
Aulnoy,  Madame  d',  127 
Aurora,  46 

Bachelier,  Nicholas,  20,  22 
Bahut,  6,  IS,  95,  96,  100 
Ball-and-claw,  57,  64,  147,  189,  224, 

228 
Ball  feet,  107,  108,  224 
Balusters,  30 
Banquette,  193,  207 
Barguenos,  126 
Barjair,  192,  204 
Baroque  style,  90 
Bartolozzi,  74 
Battlements,  5 
Bayeux  Cathedral,  105 
Beaufait,  117 
Beauvais,  195 
Bed,  6,  10,  13,  no,  149-173 

alcove,  163,  166,  170 

Anglo-Saxon,  151 


255 


Index 


Bosse,  Abraham,  159-60 

camp,  157,  158 

cane,  167 

Chippendale,  164-5 

commode  y  168 

Corsini  Palace,  160 

couch,  163 

Cromwell's,  158 

Diredoire,  169 

dome,  164,  165 

Duchesse,  170-1 

Egyptian,  149 

Empire,  169-173 

"England,"  158 

field,  113,  164,  165,  166,  170,  173 

Fifteenth  Century,  155 

folding,  168 

Frangois  I.,  17 

French,  169-70,  172,  173 

Grecian,  149-50 

Heppelwhite,  165         ^ 

Louis  XIV.,  160-2 

Louis  XV.,  162-4 

Louis  XVI.,  166 

mahogany,  173 

maple,  173 

Marie  Antoinette's,  166 

Marot,  162 

Mary  Stuart's,  159 

Mediaeval,  153,  154-S 

Moliere's,  160 

niche,  166 

patriotic,  81 

pavilion,  160 

Pompadour's,  Mme.  de,  166 

press,  165-6 

Queen  Anne's,  162 

Queen  Mary's,  162 

Renaissance,  156 

Richard  III.'s,  155 

Roman,  150-1 

Seventeenth  Century,  159-60 

Sheraton,  170-1 

Sixteenth  Century,  156-7 

sofa,  163-4,  166,  167,  168,  172-3 

Susanna's,  Princess  Palatine,  13, 157 


Tudor,  158 

Turkish,  149 

d  la  turque,  169 

truckle,  159 

trimdle,  159 

Venetian,  155,  165 

waggon-top,  165 

Ware,  great  bed  of,  158 

William  III.,  bed  of,  162 
Bedchamber     (Fifteenth     Century)  ^ 

8-9 
Bedroom  (Twelfth  Century),  153 
Bebe,  213 
Beech,  3,  134,  191 
Beef-wood,  34 
Bell-flower,  54,  66,  75,  77,  79,   121, 

201,  204,  243,  247 
Bench  and  benches,  10,  178,  180,  182 
Benneman,  G.,  72 

commode  by,  143 
B6rain,  Claude,  52 

Jean,  46,  52,  107,  138 
Bergere,  168,  192,  197,  205-6,  212 

en  gondole,  207 
Berruguete,  21 
Billet,  5 
Bimont,  193 
Birch,  quoted,  2 
Bird,  long-tailed,  244 
Bird-cage,  71 
Blondel,  70 
Board,  218 
Bombs  commodey  141 

sweep,  44,  no 
Bonaparte,  Joseph,  82 

Napoleon,  81 
Bonheur  dujour,  146,  225 
Bonnaff^,  quoted,  18,  22,  23,  25 
Bookcase,  Chippendale,  147 

Sheraton,  148 
Borgherini  furniture,  13-5 
Borgoiiu,  F.  de,  22 
Borne,  89,  213 
Boromini,  58 
Bos,  Comelis,  26 
Bosse,  Abraham,  29,  31 


256 


Index 


Bosworth,  Battle  of,  155 
Boucher,  70,  192,  195 
Boudin,  L.,  61,  140 
Boulle,  A.  C,  29,  49-50,  S3,  57,  61, 
144 

armoires,  107 

clock,  251 

commodes,  138-9 

tables,  224 

Pierre,  128 
"Bouquet,"  160 
Box,  24 

Brass-beading,  205 
Brass  bedsteads,  93 
Brass  handles,  109 
Brass  inlay,  29,  84 
Bread-and-cheese  cupboards,  115 
Brocades,  46 

Bronze  furniture,  2,  3,  150 
Bronze    ornamentation,  49,   63,   79, 
169 

gilt  ornamentation,  82 

work,  72,  145,  146 
Bronzes,  52 
Bruns,  J.  A.,  82 
Buckingham,  Duke  of,  241 
Bu^el   and  buffets^  105,  106,  115-9, 

124-S 

-armoire,  124 

d  deux  corps,  115 

dressoir,  116 

Lyonnais,  106-7 

-stool,  183 
Bulb  ornament,  35 
Bulbs,  24,  159,  188 
Bull's  head,  65,  75 
Buontalenti,  131 
Bureau,  144,  226 

-commode,  138 

de  commode,  138,  226 

en  commode,  138,  144 

Cr6qui,  144 

cylinder,  225 

Marie  de'  Medici's,  109,  144 

Regency,  140 

Riesener,  140,  146 


du  rot  (Louis  XV.),  61,  70,  145-6 

table,  14s,  225 
Buroe  tables,  229 
Buroe  dressing-tables,  141 
Burgundian  dressoir,  11 3-4 

school,  19 
Burgundy,  106,  107,  113,  182-3 
Byzantine  Style,  4 

tables,  217 

Cabinet  and  cabinets,  29,  37,  38,  90, 
117,  126-38 

Adam,  135 

d*  Allemagfie,  131 

china,  136-7 

Chinese,  136-7 

de  la  Dauphine,  61 

a  deux  corps,  106 

Dutch,  133 

ebony,  130,  131,  132 

Flemish,  128 

German,  132 

Heppelwhite,  135 

Italian,  130,  134 

Japanese,  133 

lacquered,  133 

leather,  129 

Louis  XIII.,  129 

marquetry,  134 

Nuremberg,  128 

painted,  135 

Queen  Anne,  134 

Seddons,  136 

Sheraton,  80,  135 

Spanish,  127 
Cabinet  Dictionary,  The,  79 
Cabinet-maker,  36,  126 
Cabinet-Maker  and  Upholsterer^s  Draw- 
ing-Book, The,  79 
Cabinet-Maker      and       Upholsterer^s 

Guide,  76,  165 
Cabinet-Maker^ s  London  Book  of  Prices 

and  Designs,  77 
Cabinet  des  Modes,  168 
Cabriole  chairs,  202 

legs,  56-7,  108,  189,  224 


257 


Indi 


ex 


Cabriolets,  191,  195 

Caduceus,  65 

Cafi&eri,  Filippo,  48,  49,  70 

Jacques,  60,  61,  75,  139,  140 
Calembour  wood,  241 
Camaieux,  191,  194 
Camp-beds,  157,  158 
Camp  furniture,  15 
CanapS,  182,  190,  196 

confident  y  193 

Marcus,  213 

pommier,  207 
Canapeum,  182 
Cane,  171,  199,  206 
Cane  bed,  167 
Canterbury,  236 
Capitsoldi,  75 
Caricature,  5 
Carlin,  M.,  69,  71 
Carpaccio,  155 
Carpets,  2,  152 
Cartouche,  26,  30,  45 
Carving,  5-6,  9,  65,  97,  128,  155,  156, 
158-9,  179,  180,  182,  194,  223 

Flemish,  26 

German,  23 

Renaissance,  16,  17,  18,  20 

Spanish,  8,  22 
Caryatides,  17,  20,  75,  102,  142,  157 
Case-of-drawers,  104,  108-10 
Caskets,  103 
Cassoni,  11,  13,  100 
Catherine  of  Braganza,  128 
Catherine  de*  Medici,  131,  186 
Catherine  II.  of  Russia,  146 
Cauvat,  69 
Caylus,  68 
Causeuse,  191 

Cedar,  i,  3,  22,  34,  181,  223 
Cellaret,  122,  125 
Certosino,  10,  11,  12,  99 
Chair  and  chairs,  6 

Anglo-Dutch,  189 

arm,  185,  190,  195-6,  205,  207 

Assyrian,  174-5 

bamboo,  209 


bar-back,  207 

cabriole,  202 

cane,  199 

Charles  the  Second,  188 

Chinese,  66,  197,  199 

Chippendale,  57,  189,  197-9 

conversation,  205 

curricle,  204 

curule,  181 

crown-back,  57,  189 

desk,  204,  208 

dining-room,  192,  196 

Directoire,  207 

Doge's,  184 

double,  189 

drawing-room,  205 

Egyptian,  175-6 

Empire,  84 

fancy,   80,   85,    205,    206,    209-10, 

214 
Fifteenth  Century,  180 
Flemish,  187,  188 
folding,  180,  182,  184,  186 
Fourteenth  Century,  180 
French,  187-8,  197,  198,  204 
German,  178-80 
gondola,  196,  207,  208 
Gothic,  176,  197 
Greek,  176-7 
Heppelwhite,  77,  201-4 
high-back,  182,  183,  184 
Hogarth,  57,  189 
hunting,  205 
Italian,  32,  180,  182 
kangaroo,  176 
ladder-back,  189 
Louis  XII.,  182 
Louis  XIII.,  29 
Louis  XIV.,  190 
Louis  XV.,  63,  191-4 
Louis  XVI.,  72 
low-back,  184 
lyre-back,  196 
mahogany,  202-3 
Marot,  188 
Moli^re's,  189 


258 


Index 


painted,  i8o 

parrot,  i86 

prie-dieu^  178 

Renaissance,  183 

revolving,  181 

ribbon-back,  197-8 

Roman,  177-8 

rout,  236 

scissors,  185 

Seventeenth  Century,  183 

shield-back,  184,  208 

Sheraton,  80,  204-6 

Sixteenth  Century,  181-3 

Spanish,  184 

Spanischer,  213 

St.  Peter's,  4 

Tenth  Century,  179 

Thirteenth  Century,  17&-9 

"thrown,"  181 

tour,  181 

Trafalgar,  210 

tub,  205 

Voltaire,  212,  213 

vertugadin,  181 

Windsor,  189,  209,  210 

X-shaped,  180,  185 
Chaise  brisSe,  185 

caquetettse,  186 

caquetoire,  186 

confortable,  212,  213 

confessionale,  191 

longue,  168,  190,  192,  193, 197,  200, 
206,  207,  212 

perroquet,  186,  187 

d  tenailles,  185 

voyeuse,  187 
Chambers,  Sir  W.,  quoted,  41 
Chambre,  151 
Champeaux  De,  quoted,  20,  26,  124, 

182 
Charlemagne,  tables  of,  217 
Charles  VIII.,  expedition  of,  15 
Chateau  de  Bellevue,  62 
Checker,  5 
Cherry,  24,  223 
Cheist,  97 


Chest,  cheste,  and  chests,  6,  9,  13,  15, 

95,  104,  no,  178,  180 
Chests,  Dutch,  103 

Italian,  100-2 

paunch,  138 

Spanish,  100 
Chest-of-drawers,  56,  104 
Chest-upon-chest,  104 
Chest-with-drawers,  104 
Chest-makers,  97 
Chestnut,  217 
Cheval-glass,  249 
Chevaux-bahutiers,  96 
Chimerical  animals,  24 
Chimney-glass,  248 
Chimney-piece,  46 
China,  55-6 
China  cabinet,  136 

cases,  137 

cupboard,  136 
Chinese  beds,  164-5 

chairs,  66 

chair-bottoms,  85 
Chinese  Design,  A  New  Book  of,  66 
Chinese  dragons,  51,  243 

fumitiire,  41-3 

mandarin,  65,  244 

mania,  41,  43-4 

objects,  55 

pagoda,  65,  244 

sophas,  164-5 

style,  41,  51,  65,  120,  136,  137 

taste,  51,  137,  244 
Chinoise,  Le  style,  58 
Chippendale  Style,  63-7 

Thomas  I.,  63 

Thomas  II.,  41,  54, 63-4,  73,  74, 104, 
117,  119-20,  136,  137,  138,  141, 

147 
Thomas  II.,  quoted,  164-5, 198, 199, 

200 
beds,  164-5 
chairs,  66,  189,  197-9 
clock,  252 
glass  doors,  147 
mirrors,  243-4 


259 


Index 


screens,  250 

settle,  66-7 

sideboard-tables,  119-20 

sofas,  199-200 

tables,  229 

Thomas  III.,  63,  64 
Choir-stalls,  185 
Christie's,  208-9,  235 
Cipriani,  75,  135 
Claas,  Alaert,  26 
Classic  columns,  16,  17,  204 
Classic  Orders,  13 
Classic  style,  58 
Cl^risseau,  74 
Clocks,  251-3 

Boulle,  251 

brackets  for,  253 

Chippendale,  252 

japanned  cases,  40,  252 

mahogany  cases,  252 

Marot,  251 

and  pedestal,  251 

Sheraton,  252 

tall,  252 
Clothes-press,  104 
Clouston,  R.  S.,  quoted,  78,  122 
Climy  Museum,  99,  loi,  106, 129, 

144,  155,  239,  249 
Coeck,  Peter  of  Alost,  27,  28 
Coffer,  95,  97,  102-3 
Coffers,  marriage,  100-2 

tilting,  99-100 
Cofres  de  Chypre,  103 
Colbert,  240 
Collins,  74 
Columbani,  75 
"Comfortable"  period,  89 
Commode,  109,  138-144,  226,  244 

en  arbalete,  140 

d  la  Bagnolet,  140 

Benneman,  142-3 

a  la  Charolais,  140 

d  la  Chartres,  140 

d  la  Dauphine,  140 

Directoire,  143 

Empire,  143 


half-moon,  143 

d  la  Harani,  140 

Heppelwhite,  142 

Louis  XIV,,  139 

Louis  XV.,  139-41 

Louis  XVI.,  72,  142-3 

d  panse,  138 

d  la  Regence,  140 

Regency,  139 

Riesener,  139,  141,  142 

Sheraton,  80,  142 

en  tomheau,  138 
Commodes  bureau-tables,  141 

dressing-tables,  144 

tomheaux,  143 

writing-desks,  144 
Compartments,  26 
Confidante,  203 
Copland,  H.,  66 
Copper  ornaments,  49 
Cordovan  leather,  7,  32 
Corner-cabinet,  138 
Cornucopia,  30,  45 
Corsini  Palace,  bed  from,  160 
Cotgrave,  181,  183,  185,  186 
Cotte,  Robert  de,  60 
131,      Couch-bed,  163 

Court-cupboard,  25,  34,  114 
Crapauds,  213 
Creance,  110 
Credence,  6,  iio-ii 
Credenza,  110 
Creed  of  an  Epicure,  115 
Cr^qui,  Marechal  de,  bureau  of,  144 
Cressent,  Charles,  52,  57,  58,  140 
Cromwell,  Oliver,  bed  of,  158 
Crusade,  First,  152 
Cucci,  Domenico,  47,  48 
Cuffi,  D.,  59 
Cupboard,  10 
Cuirs,  27,  35,  102 
Cuir  bonilli,  102 
Cupboard-press,  104 
Curios,  55,  133 

Cushions,  2,  4,  183,  194-5,  196,  200, 
203 

260 


Index 


Cylinder  bureau,  145,  146,  225 

desk,  232 
Cypress,  22,  25,  223 

D£u[s,  182 
Damasks,  46,  152 
Darly,  Matthias,  66 
David,  82 
D'Aviler,  162 

quoted,  11 7-8 
Dauphine,  195 
Decadence,  23,  30,  35,  36 
Decoration,  motives  of,  i,  2,  5,  17, 

20,  24,  27,  33 
Delafosse,  67,  69,  166 
Delaune,  116 
De  Lalonde,  71 
Delft  pottery,  39 
Delia  Bella,  31 
Dervilliers,  213 

Designs  in  Gothic  Furniture,  91 
Designers    of    the    Renaissance, 

28 
Desk,  Heppelwhite,  77,  147-8 

Queen  Anne,  146-7 

roll-top,  14s 

wheel,  9 

see  Bureau 
Desmalter,  Jacob,  82 
Deville,  quoted,  143,  214 
Diamond  points,  5,  26 
Dictionaire  de  I'  Acadimie,  138 
Dietterlin,  125 
Diocletian's  Palace,  74 
Directoire  beds,  160 

chairs,  207 

commodes,  143 

Style,  73,  81 
Divan,  207 
Dolphin,  65 
Dolphin's  head,  211 
Dome-beds,  164,  165 
Double  chest,  no 
Dragonnades,  54 
Drap  de  bure,  144 
Draperies  and  drapery,  29,  65,  87- 


Dream  of  St.  Polyphilus,  155 

of  St.  Ursula,  155 
Dresden  Museum,  132 
Dressing-bureau,  109 
Dressoir,  6,  8,  1 10-15 

Burgimdian,  113-4 

Du  Cerceau,  116 
Dressoir-bufet,  112 
Dripping-water,  137,  141 
Drop-handles,  109 
Du  Barry,  Madame,  69,  71,  195 
Dubois,  J.,  61,  63,  146 
18,       Du  Cerceau,  Jacques  Androuet,  18-19, 
26,  27, 107, 108, 113, 116, 129,  iss 

dressoirs,  116 
Duchesse,  168,  170-1,  193,  197,  200, 

204,  212 
Dufaux,  Martin,  51 
Dugourc,  69 

Dumb-waiters,  225,  226,  236 
Duplessis,  61,  70,  14s 
27,      Diirer,  Albrecht,  22,  23 
Dutch  chests,  103 

cabinets,  133 

furniture,  56 
Dyche,  quoted,  117 

Eagle,  247 

Ear  motive,  32,  65 

East  India  Company,  Dutch,  38,  39 

English,  38,  40 
East  India  House,  40 
Ebeniste,  36,  106 
Eberard  II.,  180 

Ebony,  i,  24,  25,  26,  30,  33, 35,  45,  83, 
84,  97,  107,  126,  127,  128,  129, 
130,  175,  176,  219,  221,  242 

cabinets,  130,  131,  132 

carving  in,  128 

green,  241 
£cran,  249 
Edwards,  66 
Egg-and-tongue,  2 
Egyptian  motives,  81 

chairs,  175-6 
■8  Style,  1-2,  68 

261 


Index 


Elizabethan,  24 
Elm,  3,  211 
Empire  beds,  169-73 

commodes,  143 

furniture,  82 

mirrors,  249 

sofas,  212 

Style,  71,  72,  78,  79,  81-6 

writing-desk,  148 
Encoignures,  63,  138 
"England  bed,^'  158 
Escabeau  and  Escabeaux,  6,  183 
Escritorios  de  la  Chine,  38,  128 
Espagnolettes,  52,  139 
Esther,  149 

Evel}^!,  John,  quoted,  43-4,  128,   241 
&tagere,  90 
Etruscan  Art,  i,  3 
Exhibition  of  185 1,  91 

F.  of  Frangois  I.,  17 

Faldistoire,  9 

Fald-stools,  179,  185 

Fan,  75,  109 

Fancy  Chair,  80,  85 

Fancy  Sofa,  85 

Faudesteuil,  184 

Pauteuil,  180,  190,  191,  192,  193 

bergire,  196 

d  la  chinoise,  195 

de  commodity,  192 

confessionale,  192,  196 

gondola,  212 

d  la  polonaise,  195 

a  la  turque,  195 
Feather,  66,  73,  195 
Feathers,  Prince  of  Wales's,  77,  201 
Fernandez,  J.,  127 
Festoon,  75,  79,  204 
Festoon  and  tassels,  77 
Fibrug,  P.,  127 
Field-beds,  39, 163, 164, 165, 166, 170, 

173 
Fifteenth  Century  beds,  155 

chairs,  180 

furniture,  8-9 


Fish-counters,  228 
Flamboyant  Style,  112 
Flemings  in  England,  25 
Flemish  cabinets,  131 

chests,  103 

chairs,  187-8,  197,  198,  204 

tables,  223 
Foot  (and  feet),  animal,  179,  180 

ball,  107,  108,  224 

ball  and  claw,  57,  64,  147,  189,  224, 
228 

console,  194 

hind's,  223 

leaf-shoe,  139,  140,  141,  191,  194, 

195 

lion's,  217 

Marlborough,  201 

peg-top,  194 

scroll,  194,  2  n 

shell,  194 

spade,  121,  201 

Spanish,  188 
Floris,  Cornelius,  27 

Frans,  27 

James,  27 

style,  27 
Flotner,  Peter,  155 
Foddy,  James,  245 
Folding-beds,  157,  168 

chairs,  180,  182,  184,  186 

sofas,  197 

tables,  219,  223 
Fontainebleau,  142 

school  of,  28 
Fontange,  Mademoiselle  de,  138 
Footstools,  175,  176 
Forli,  Melozzo  da,  183 
Forms,  180 
Forty,  69 

Fourteenth  Century  chairs,  180 
Fragonard,  195 
Francisco,  127 
Francois  I.,  14 

bed,  17 

style,  16-17 
French  beds,  169-70,  172,  173 


262 


Indi 


ex 


commode-tables,  141 
furniture,  172-3 
Fret,  2 

Froissart,  quoted,  218, 
Fureti^re,  quoted,  182 


219 


Gadroons,  24,  220 
Galerie  des  fetes,  240 
Garde-huche,  100 
Garde-Meuhle,  142 

Garlands,  16, 17,  20,  30,  31, 45,  71, 194 
Garrick,  David,  64 
Gaudreaux,  60 
Gavet  Collection,  106 
Genevra  dei  Bend,  loi 
Genre  auriculaire,  32,  65 
Gentleman  and  Cabinet-Maker^ s  Direc- 
tor, 63 
Geometrical  ornamentation,  5,  11,  33, 

129 
German  cabinets,  131,  132 

chairs,  178-80 

influence  on  French  furniture,  73 

looking-glasses,  248 

tables,  217 
Gesso  duro,  100 
Ghirlandaio,  loi 
Gibbon,  Edward,  64 
Gibbons,  Grinling,  34,  243 
Gilded  furniture,  i,  2,  7, 13, 18,  22,  45, 
65,  156,  184,  191,  194,  200,  207, 
223,  240 

leather,  7 
Gillot,  Claude,  52,  53,  57,  58 
Gilt-bronze  ornamentation,  75 
Gillow,  Richard,  236 
Girandoles,  45,  62,  77,  243,  247 
Glass-inlay,  i,  2,  36, 

see  Mosaic 
Glass,  painted,  132 
Glorious  Revolution,  54 
Gobelins,  44,  46,  47,  48,  51,  195 
Gold  furniture,  3,  35 
Gold  ornamentation,  179 

table,  216 
Goltzius,  26 


Gondola,  192,  193 
Gondouin,  J.,  70 
Gothic,  90,  91 

architecture,  5 

chairs,  176,  197 

furniture,  9-10 

style,  5-15,  65,  86,  87 

tables,  218 
Gouthiere,  68,  69,  75 
Goujon,  Jean,  20,  107,  113 
Gozzoli,  loi 
Granacci,  14 
Grecian  beds,  149-50 

squab,  206 

sofas,  210,  211,  214 

style,  84 
Greek  chairs,  176-7 

style,  2-3,  83 

tables,  216 
Greenwich,  114 
Gribelin,  Samuel,  56 
Grotesques,  27 
Guadameciles,  7 
Guiridon,  223 
Gu^rin,  225 
Guilloche,  i,  8,  26 
Gumley,  John,  134 
Gutierrez,  P.,  128 

Haig,  Thomas,  64 
Hainhofer,  P.,  132 
Half-moon  commode,  143 
Hamilton,  William,  136 
Hamlet,  152 
Hampton  Court,  54 
Hare  wood  House,  73-4 
Havard,  quoted,  50,  213 
Heemskerck,  Martin  van,  26 
Henri  H.,  128 

ornamentation,  17 

style,  17-21 
Henrietta  Maria,  43 
"Henry,"  212 
Henry  Vin.,  25,  114 
Heppelwhite,  Alice,  76 

George,  76,  121,  122,  123 


263 


Index 


Style,  76-7 

quoted,  121,  122,  123, 165,  201,  202, 
203,  204,  231-2 

beds,  165 

cabinets,  135 

chairs,  201-4 

commodes^  142 

desks,  147-8 

mirrors,  247 

screens,  250 

sofas,  203 

tables,  231 
"Herculaneum,"  205 
Hernandez,  G.,  22 
Herodotus,  149 
Hervieux,  70,  145 
Hexagon,  30 

High-boy,  41,  108-10,  141 
High  chair,  9,  20-1 
Hind's  foot,  223 

Hodges,  C.  C,  quoted,  97,  98-9 
HoUy,  3,  24 
Hongre,  Louis  le,  51 
Honeysuckle,  45 
Hope,  Thomas,  83 
Horn,  97 
Horsechestnut,  2 
Horsehair,  202,  203,  208,  211 
Household  furniture,  83 
Huche,  6,  95,  100,  126 
Huchiers,  100,  106 
Huet,  57 
Huguenots,  53 
Human  figures,  i,  $ 
Huquier,  58 
Huygens,  51,  251 

Icicles,  66,  244 

lie  de  France,  106,  107,  113 

Ince  and  Mayhew,  66,  137 

Incroyables,  196 

Inlaid- work  and  inlay,  i,  3,  4,  6,  10, 
II,  12,  18,  23,  35,  36,  so,  76,  84, 
93, 99, 108, 129, 136, 139,  179, 121 
d  la  moresque,  102 

Intarsia,  11 


Irving,  Washington,  85 
Isle  des  Hermaphrodites,  35,  185 
Italian  cabinets,  130,  134 
chairs,  180,  182 
chests,  100-2 
furniture,  6-7,  13-15,  32 
Ivory,  I,  3,  4,  6,  10,  12,  29,  35-6,  38, 
93,  97,  100,  103,  126,  127,  129, 
130,  150,  176,  17s,  179,  217,  243 

Jacobean  period,  33 
Jacquemart,  quoted,  5,  9 
Jane  of  Burgimdy,  151,  219 
Japanned  furniture,  35,  65,  206,  250, 

252 
Japanning,  39,  201,  203 
Jardiniere,  227,  237 
Java  mahogany,  34 
Jesuit  Style,  21 
Johnson,  Thomas,  66 

Sir  WiUiam,  table  of,  228 
Jones  Collection,  69,  107 

Inigo,  34 
Joubert,  60 
Judith,  149 

Kas,  107-8 

Kauffmann,  Angelica,  75,  80 

Kaunitz,  Prince  de,  145,  226 

King-wood,  34 

Kist,  kiste,  97 

Knife-cases,  79,  123 

"Knots,"  107,  108 

Kunstschrank  of  Pomeranian  132-3 

Kyst,  kyste,  97 

Lacquer,  35,  37,  39,  40,  41,  Si,  108, 

109,  133-4,  139,  142,  146 
Lacquered  commodes,  141 

cabinets,  133 

furniture,  38-9,  65 
Lambeth,  241 
Lapis-lazuli,  36,  130 
Laval,  De,  quoted,  37-8,  128 
Leaf-shoes,  139,  140,  141,  191,   194, 

195 


264 


Index 


Leather,  2,  7-8,  26, 102,  180,  181,  182, 

d  romaine,  163 

184,  192,  193,  202,  208 

de  satyrs,  158 

cabinets,  129 

d  tombeau,  163,  166 

Leborde,  De,  quoted,  22 

d  tulipe,  163 

Le  Brun,  44,  46-7,  48,  204 

d  la  turque,  163,  168 

Leg,  cabriole,  56-7,  108,  189,  224 

Litchfield,  quoted,  92-4 

bound  with  ribbons,  71,  194,  202 

Livery-cupboard,  114-5 

grooved,  71 

Lock,  Matthias,  66 

pillar-and-claw,  235 

Loret,  225 

reeded,  79 

Lorian,  225 

sabre,  121,  201,  213 

Loriot,  61 

spindle,  108 

Lothar,  Emperor,  216 

spiral,  222 

Lotus,  77,  176,  201,  204 

term,  188,  224 

Louis,  J.  P.,  82 

thousand,  222 

Louis  XII.  chairs,  182 

X-shaped,  208 

Style,  15-17,  113 

Leieu,  J.  F.,  69,  70 

Louis  XIIL,  29-30 

Lemarchand,  82 

cabinet,  129 

Leo  X.,  183 

tables,  220 

Lepautre,  Antoine,  47 

Louis  XIV.,  44-53 

Jean,  47,  48,  54 

beds,  160-2 

Lequeu,  71-2 

chairs,  190 

Levasseur,  £.,  61,  72 

commodes,  139 

Levetus,  A.  S.,  quoted,  217 

mirrors,  242 

' 

Linenfold,  6,  24,  28,  99,  in,  153, 180 

screens,  249 

Line,  straight,  67 

tables,  223 

Lion's  feet,  217 

Louis  XV.  Style,  S7-6S,  "9, 140,  146 

head,  207 

armoire,  107 

Lisbon,  37,  38,  127 

beds,  162-4 

Lit  d'ange,  161,  163 

bureau  table,  145 

anglais  or  anglaise,  163,  166,  170 

chairs,  19 1-4 

de  baldaquin,  160 

commodes,  139-14.T 

d  la  chinoise,  168 

mirrors,  243 

de  coin,  168 

screens,  250 

d  deux  chevets,  163 

tables,  224-5 

d  double  tombeau,  164 

Louis  XVI.,  67-73 

d  la  duchesse,  161-2,  167,  170 

beds,  166 

de  la  federation,  169 

chairs,  72,  194-6 

dfleche,  163 

commodes,  142-3 

en  housse,  159-60,  161,  167 

writing-desks,  148 

d  V  impSriale,  160,  162,  163 

Louvre,  106,  128,  129,  130, 

146,  iSS, 

de  Melusine,  158 

225 

en  oUomane,  163 

Low-boy,  41,  108,  109 

de  perse,  167 

Lozenges,  5,  33,  35,  75,  142, 

146,  176 

d  la  polonaise,  163,  167,  168 

Lucas  van  Leyden,  26 

de  repos,  88,  168,  190,  197 

Luini,  Bernardo,  12 

265 


Index 


Lyonnais  work,  113 
Lyons,  106,  113 
Lyre,  79,  204 

Mac6,  Jean,  129 
Mademoiselle,  La  Grande,  43 
Mahogany,  56,  75,  76,  78,  83,  91,  109, 

125,  127,  148,  169,  173,  188,  190, 
194,  196,  201,  204,  206,  207,  208, 
210,  211,  223,  228,  231,  234,  235, 
250,  252 

Mainwaring,  Robert,  66 
Maitres-Huchiers-Menuisiers,  1 00 
Manchettc,  190,  191 
Mansion,  S.,  82 
Manual  du  Tapissier,  193 
Maple,  3,   150,   173,   211,   223 
Marble  furniture,  3 

inlay,  181 

slabs,  62,  221,  224,  231,  237 
Marbles,  23,  36,  46,  130,  142,  223 
Marcion,  82 

Margaret  of  Austria,  129,  158 
Margherita  Acciajuoli,  13,  14,  15 
Maria  Novella,  Sta.,  loi 
Marie  Antoinette,  71,  195 

bed  of,  166 
Marie  of  Gonzaga,  131 
Marie  de'  Medici,  30,  31,   43,   109 

bureau  of,  144 
Mariette,  quoted,  53 
Marot,  Daniel,  54 

bed,  162 

chairs,  188 

clock,  251 

tables,  224 
Marlborough  foot,  201 
Marquetry,  2,  5,  6,  11,  13,  23,  24,  25, 
31,  35,  36,  61,  63,  70,  'j^,  103, 

126,  130,  134,  139,  140,  142,  143, 
14s,  146,  181,  184,  185,  220,  223, 
243 

Marquetry  cabinets,  134 

commodes,  141 
Marquise,  192 
Marriage  coffers,  100-2 


Martellange,  fitienne,  21 
Martin,  A.  N.,  62 

J.  A.,  62 

Robert,  62 
Martin,  Vemis,  139 
Mary  of  Burgundy,  152 
Mary  Stuart,  bed  of,  159 
Mascarons,  30,  65,  103,  139,  220,  224, 

243 
Masks,  24 
Mazarin,  Cardinal,  43,  49 

Library,  50 
Mechanical  devices,  65,    73,    77,    79, 

225,  230 
Medallions,  75,  78,  194,  196,  202,  204 
Mediaeval  beds,  153,  154-5 

furniture, 
Meissonnier,  J.  A.,  58-9,  60,  199 

sofa,  199 
Menuisiers-huchiers,  112 
Miridienne,  89,  207,  212 
Metal  furniture,  2,  3,  216,  217 

mounts,  139 

tables,  217 

work,  140 
Metropolitan  Museum,  102,  108,  109, 

III,  148,  156,  231 
Mirrors,  239-49 

Adam,  247 

cheval-glass,  249 

chimney,  248 

Chippendale,  243-4 

concave,  247 

convex,  247,  248 

dressing,  249 

Empire,  249 

gilded  wood,  240 

Girandole,  244,  247 

Heppel white,  247 

pier-glasses,  247,  248 

Queen  Anne,  243 

Renaissance,  239 

Sheraton,  247,  248 

Sixteenth  Century,  239 

Venetian  glass,  239-240 

William  III.,  243 


266 


Index 


Molifire,  bed  of,  i6o 
chair  of,  189 
tables  of,  224 
Molinier,  quoted,  10-12,  48,  52, 

58,  59,  68-9,  73,  82-3,  91 
Monkey,  52,  56,  57,  65,  225,  243 
Monnoyer,  J.  B.,  56 
Moreau,  L.,  143 
Mosaics,  12,  24,  29, 130, 131,  217, 

223 
Mosaic,  marble,  93 
Mosque  of  Cordova,  3 
Mother-of-pearl,  12,  18,   23,  29, 

38,  39,  103,  108,  129,   130, 

139 
Munich  Museum,  10,  13 
Museimi  of  Industrial  Art,  Berlin, 
Music,  rage  for,  90 
Musical  instruments,  69 
Murano,  239,  240 
Mythological  animals,  3,  20,  243 
divinities,  45,  65,  243 

Nail-heads,  24 
Nancy,  Palace  of,  158 
Napoleon  I.,  81 
Napoleon  III.,  146 
Nest-of-drawers,  104 
Neufforge,  69 

New  York,  mirrors  in,  245-7 
Niche-beds,  166 
Nicot,  quoted,  182 
Nonsuch  House,  25 
Noyon,  Cathedral  of,  105 
Nuremberg,  cabinets,  128 
Nuremberg  Museum,  10 
Nutwood,  34,  108,  133 

Oak,  22,  24,  25,  34,  107,   125, 
181,  191,  196,  217,  223 

Age  of,  35,  56 
Octagon,  30 
QSben,  J.  F.,  60,  61,  70,  145 

Simon,  61 
(Eume  de  Damas,  6 
Olive-wood,  3,  34,  243,  245 


Oppenordt,  A.  J.,  49 

G.  M.,  57 
Oriental  influences,  36-44 
53,      Orleans,  Due  d',  138 

Duchesse  d',  144 
Or  moulu,  80,  85,  145,  146,  168,  224, 

225,  238 
Ornamentation,  Adam,  75 
221,  Chinese,  51 

Chippendale,  65 

Elizabethan,  24 

Frangois  I.,  17 
36,  Gothic,  5-6 

131,  Greek,  2 

Henri  11. ,  17 

Henri  III.,  18 
13a  Henri  IV.,  18 

Heppel white,  77 

Italian,  16 

Louis  XIII.,  30 

Louis  XIV.,  45 

Louis  XV.,  57,  62 

Louis  XVI.,  69,  71 

Marot,  54 

Renaissance,  16,  17 

Romanesque,  5 

Sheraton,  79 
Ottoman,  167,  193,  197,  214-5 
Ottoman  d  la  reine,  197 
Ottomane  en  gondole,  197 
Ovals,  35,  71,  78 

Pabst,  F.  J.,  82 

Pafrat,  9,  71 

Painted  furniture,  7,  12,  13,  22,  35, 

135,  180 
Paintings,  rage  for,  90 
Palermo,  152 
134,       Palissandre,  34,  143,  211 
Palladio,  34 
Panelling,  33 
Panels,  26 
Panos  de  raz,  152 
Papier  macM,  92 
Paravent,  249 
Pardo,  G.,  22 

267 


Index 


Passe,  Crispin  van  den,  31 
Pastoral  trophies,  69,  71,  194 
Patera,  2,  79,  201,  204 
Paunch  chests,  138 
"PaviUon,"  158 

bed,  160 
Pavilion  de  Louveciennes,  69 
Pears,  30 

Pear-wood,  24,  25,  34 
Pechi  Mortel,  200 
Pediments,  17 
Pendeloques,  27 
Percier,  81,  82,  83,  237 
Percier  and  Fontaine,  82 
Pergolesi,  M.  A.,  66,  74 
Persian,  191 
Petit,  N.,  61 
Philip  the  Good,  152 
Philip  II.,  Duke  of  Pomerania,  132 
Philip  III.,  128 
Philip  IV.,  129 
Pietra  dura,  36,  127,  131 
Pier-glasses,  224,  247,  248 
Pillar  and  daw,  235 
Pilon,  G.,  113 
Pine,  3,  22,  134,  217,  223 
Pine-cones,  174 
Pionnier,  P.,  61 
Piranesi,  68 
Pitti  Palace,  130 
Placet,  181 
Plaques,  use  of,  62 
Pollen,  quoted,  33 
"Pontine,"  160,  162 
Pompadour,  Madame  de,  61,  6a,  69, 

19s 

bed  of,  166 

table  of,  225 
Pompeii,  95 

Pompeii  and  Herculaneum,  68 
Porcelain,  37,  39,  62 
Pouch-tables,  234 
Pouf,  89,  213,  214 
Press,  97,  104 
Press-beds,  165-6 
Prie-dieu  chair,  153 


Precious  stones,  23,  36,  38 
Puff,  214 
Pugin,  A.  W.,  91 

Queen  Anne,  55 

bed  of,  162 

cabinets,  134 

mirrors,  243 

settees,  189 
Queen  Hatshepsut,  chair  of,  176 
Queen  Mary,  bed  of,  162 
Quiver,  71 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  34 
Ram's  head,  65,  75 
Ranson,  71,  166 
Rape  of  Helen,  loi 
Rape  of  the  Lock,  quoted,  228 
Raphael,  13,  183 
Rat-tooth  braid,  191 
Raynham  Hall,  64 
Refugie,  style,  53-7,  162 
Regency,  52,  54,  57 

biureau,  140 

commodes,  139 
Renaissance  Style,  16,  90,  184 

English,  24-5 

Flemish,  25-8 

German,  22 

Spanish,  21-2 
Renaissance  furniture,  12,  15-28 

beds,  156 

chairs,  183 

mirrors,  239 

tables,  219-20 
Repository,  Ackermann's,  86,  91,  237 
Restoration  (1815-1830),  89-90 

chairs,  211 
Reubens,  31 

Style,  31,  43 
Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  53 
Reynolds,  Sir  J.,  64 
Riaiio,  quoted,  22 
Ribecci,  74 
Ribbons,  71,  195 
Richard  III.,  bed  of,  155 


268 


Index 


Richelieu,  31,  130 

table  of,  221 
Riesener,  J.  H.,  61,  69,  70,  141,  145 

bureau,  140,  146 

commode,  141,  142 
Robert  of  Sicily,  152 
Rocaille,  style,  51,  58,  140 
Rock  crystal,  62 
Rococo,  90,  93 
Roentgen,  David,  73 
Roman  arch,  13 

style,  3,  83 

chairs,  177-8 

tables,  216 
Romanesque  Style,  4-5 
Rose,  74 

Rosenborg,  Castle  of,  132 
Rosette,  2,  68,  75,  201 
Rosewood,  24,  78,  83,  91,  139,  144, 
176,  194,  204,  214,  215,  22s,  228, 
234 
Rouaix,  quoted,  17,  30,  31 
Rubens,  31 

Style,  31,  43 

Sabre  leg,  91,  208 

Sacredaan,  34,  103,  108,  222 

Saglio,  A.,  quoted,  19,  20,  47,  60 

Saint  Mark's  Treasury,  184 

Saint  Simon,  quoted,  186 

Salamander,  17 

Salmagundi,  quoted,  85-6 

Sambin,  Hughes,  19,  20,  107, 113,  220 

Sandal-wood,  133 

Sandford,  James,  quoted,  115 

Sans  Souci,  62 

Salembier,  166 

Salzburg,  180 

Santa  Maria  delle  Grazie,  la 

Sarcophagus,  13 

Satin-wood,  75,  78,  83,  121,  135,  201, 

206,  225,  234 
Satire,  5 
Saunier,  C,  70 
Sauval,  180,  218, 
Saw-tooth,  s 


Scandinavian  tables,  217 
Schieferstein,  Hans,  131 
Schrank,  10 
Schwanhard,  Hans,  131 
Scone  Palace,  159 
Screens,  249-51 

Chippendale,  250 

folding,  249 

Heppelwhite,  250 

horse,  249 

horse  fire,  250 

Louis  XIV.,  249 

Louis  XV.,  250 

pole  fire-screen,  250 

Sheraton,  250 

Tripod  fire-screen,  250 
Scroll,  83,  243 
Scroll  and  shell,  57 
Sea-weed,  134 
Seats,  2,  174-215 
Second  Empire  seats,  214 
Seddons  cabinet,  136 
Sellette,  183 

Serlio,  Sebastian,  27,  28 
Serre-papiers,  145,  225 
Settee,  189,  200 

Sheraton,  205 
Seventeenth  Century  beds,  159-60 

chairs,  183 

tables,  221-23 
Sevres  plaques,  62,  73,  141,  146,  226 
Seymour,  213 

Shearer,  Thomas,  77-8,  122,  123 
Shell,  45,  SO,  65,  77,  97,  243 
Shepherds'  crooks,  194 

hats,  71 
Shepherdesses,  194,  195 
Sheraton,  Thomas,  78-80,  122,  123 

quoted,  118,     123,    170-1,    204-6, 
232-3,  234-6,  253 

beds,  1 70-1 

bookcases,  148 

cabinets,  135 

chairs,  204-6 

clocks,  252 

commodes,  142 


269 


Index 


glass-doors,  148 

mirrors,  247,  248 

screens,  250 

settees,  205 

sideboards,  117,  119-25 

sofas,  206 
Sheraton  Style,  78-80 
Sheraton's  Encyclopaedia,  79 
Siamoise,  213 
Sideboard,  117,  119-25 

Adam,  120 

cellaret,  79-120 

Chippendale,  119-20 

Empire,  123-5 

Heppelwhite,  77,  121-3 

pedestal,  120 

Shearer,  77-8,  120 

Sheraton,  123 

table,  117,  119-20 
Silver  furniture,  3,  35,  128 

ornamentation,  62,  179,  221 

tables,  223 

work,  128 
Silvered  furniture,  18,  45,  192 

leather,  7 
Simon,  Constance  quoted,  64-5,  73- 

4,  120-1 
Singeries,  53 
Sixteenth  Century  beds,  156-7 

chairs,  181-3 

furniture,  12-15 

mirrors,  239 

tables,  220-1 
Sixtus  IV.,  183 
Smith,  George,  83 

quoted,  63 
Sobry,  quoted,  124 
Society  of  Arts,  64 

Sofa-beds,  88,  163-4,  166,  167,  168, 
172-3 

d  /'  antique,  168,  197 
Sofa  and  sofas,  196,  197,  200 

bar-back,  204 

Borne,  213 

Chippendale,  164-5,  199-200 

Directoire,  21a 


divan,  207 

Empire,  212 

fancy,  85 

Grecian,  84,  210 

Heppelwhite,  203 

Meissonier,  199 

meridienne,  89,  207,  212 

pommier,  197 

Sheraton,  206 

d  la  ckinoise,  197 

d  la  polonaise,  197 

d  la  iurque,  197 
Sont,  I, 
Sopha,  182 

Chinese-Chippendale,  164-5 
South  Kensington  Museum,  100,  107, 

119,  127 
Spade-foot,  121,  201 
Spades,  71 
Spalatro,  74 
Spanish  cabinets,  127 

chests,  100 

feet,  188 

fiumiture,  8 

walnut,  22 

wood-carvers,  127 
Spanischer,  213 
Sphinx,  75,  81,  207,  236,  237 
Spindle  leg,  108 

ornament,  53 
Spiral  leg,  222 
Spoon-case,  123 
Squab,  104 
Squirrel,  65 

Stafford,  John,  quoted,  89,  237 
Stanislaus,  King,  146 
Star,  5,  75 
St.  Cloud,  146 
Stockel,  Joseph,  73 
Stone  inlay,  i 
Stools,  6,  181,  185,  203 
Strap-work,  24,  33,  194,  195,  202 
Straw-matting,  85 
Stripe,  73,  77,  78,  166,  202 
Style,  Adam,  73-^6 

Antique,  83,  204 


270 


Index 


Auriculaire,  32,  65 

baroque,  90 

Byzantine,  4 

chinois,  58 

Chippendale,  63-7 

Classic,  58 

Diredoire,  73,  81 

Du  Barry,  69 

Egjrptian,  1-2,  68 

Empire,  71,  72,  78,  79,  81-6 

flamboyant,  112 

Floris,  27 

Francois  I.,  11-17 

Gothic,  5-is,  6s,  86,  87 

Grecian,  84 

Greek,  2-3,  83 

Heppelwhite,  76-7 

Jesuit,  21 

Louis  XIL,  15-17,  113 

Louis  XIII.,  29-30 

Louis  XIV.,  44-53 

Louis  XV.,  57 

Louis  XVI.,  58,  67-73,  90 

Marie  Antoinette,  69 

Marot,  54 

Refugie  53-7,  162 

Regency,  52,  54,  57 

de  la  Reine,  71 

Renaissance,  16,  90,  184 

Rocaille,  58,  60 

Rubens,  31,  43 

Sheraton,  78-80,  122,  123 

troubadour,  90 

Table  and  tables,  Adam  pier,  75-6 
d  banc,  223 
Boulle,  224 
bureau,  225 
buroe,  229 
Byzantine,  217 
Canterbury,  236 
card,  223,  228,  231 
Charlemagne's,  217 
Chippendale,  229 
Cicero's,  3 
console,  224,  227,  229,  237 


dining,  230,  235 

dining,  extension,  227 

dining,  set  of,  232 

drawing,  222 

dressing,  226,  229-30,  231-3,  249 

drop-leaf,  222 

dimib-waiter,  236 

Egyptian,  216 

Eighteenth  Century,  225,  226-36 

Empire,  236-7 

extension,  236 

Flemish,  223 

d  fleurs,  227,  237 

flower,  227,  237-8 

folding,  219,  223 

Franks,  217 

gate-legged,  222 

German,  217 

Gillow,  236 

gold,  216 

Grecian,  216 

GuSridon,  223 

hang-ear,  222 

Harlequin-Pembroke,  233 

Heppelwhite,  77,  231-2 

jardiniere,  227,  237 

Kidney  library,  235 

ladies'  cabinet  dressing,  234 

library,  232 

Louis  XIIL,  220 

Louis  XIV.,  223 

Louis  XV.,  63,  224-5 

Louis  XVI.,  226 

mahogany,  223,  231 

Marot,  224 

metal,  217 

Moli^re,  224 

moving,  225 

oval,  217,  222 

Pembroke,  231,  233,  238 

Pie-crust,  229 

pier,  231,  232-3,  238 

pillar-and-claw,  235,  236 

pouch,  234 

quartette,  236 

Renaissance,  219-20 


271 


Index 


Richelieu's,  221 

Roman,  216 

round,  217,  222 

rout,  236 

Rudd's  dressing,  232 

Scandinavian,  217 

servante,  226 

Seventeenth  Century,  221-3 

shaving,  230,  231,  234 

Shearer,  78 

Sheraton,  232-6 

show,  S5 

sideboard,  119-20,  230 

silver,  223 

Sixteenth  Century,  220-21 

spider-leg,  235 

stone,  218 

tambour,  234 

tambour  writing,  232 

tea,  228-9,  237 

Tenth  Century,  217 

Thirteenth  Century,  218 

"thousand-legged,"  222 

tip-and-tum,  229 

writing,  225 

work,  234 
Table-cloth,  221,   223,  224 
Tabouret,  181,  183,  192,  193 
Tambour-shutter,  77,   79,    123,    226, 

232,  234 
Tapestries  and  tapestry,  4,  8,  46,  62, 

73, 151-2, 153, 191, 192,  i9S»  197, 
207,  249 
Tarsia,  11,  12,  99,  184,  185,  221 
Taste,  decline  of,  91-4 
Tazza,  201 
Tedeschi,  87 
Tenth  Century  chairs,  179 

tables,  217 
Term-shaped  legs,  188,  224 
Termed  figures,  17 
Tite-d-tite,  89,  212,  213 
Thirteenth  Century  chairs,  178-9 

tables,  218 
Thomire,  68,  72,  82 
Thyine-wood,  3 


Tilting  coffers,  99-100 
Toledo,  Cathedral  of,  22,  185 
Torch,  burning,  71,  72 
Tortoise-shell,  29,  31,  127,  130,  131, 

139,  150,  217 
Toiuraine,  School  of,  113 
Tracery,  5,  180 
Trafalgar  chair,  91 
Trestles,  180 
Trevoiix,  186 
Trianon,  146 
Trophies,  26,  69 
Truckle  bed,  159 
Trundle  bed,  159 
Tuileries,  146 
Tulip-wood,  84,  13s 
Turned  furniture,  35 
ornaments,  33 

Umbrella,  65 

Upholstery,  54,  62,  151,  isgHSo,  162, 

183,  204,  207,  211 
Urn,  77,  79,  166,  201,  204 

Vargas,  126 

VarguenoSy  126,  127,  144 
Vasari,  quoted,  221 
Vasco  da  Gama,  37 
Vases,  30,  75,  204 

sideboard,  122 
Vauxhall  plate  glass,  241-2 
Velasco,  Lucas  de,  127, 
Velvet,  46,  183 
Veneering,  79 
Venetian  beds,  155,  165 

glass,  239,  240 
Vernis  Martin,  61,  62,  76,  139 
Victorian  Age,  91-4 
Violet- wood,  34,  223,  228 
Vitrine,  136 

"Vitruvius,"  the  English,  34 
Voltaire,  quoted,  161 
Voltaire  (chair),  212,  213 
Vouet,  Simon,  31 
Voyelle,  196 
Voyeuse,  187, 196,  205 


272 


Index 


Vries,  Hans  Vredeman  de,  26,  27, 108, 
116,  125 

Waggon-top  beds,  165 

Wallace  Collection,  50,    51,   60,    139, 

140,  146,  224,  251 
Walnut,  24,  34,  35,  107,  143, 184, 185, 

194,  222,  223,  242 
Age  of,  56 
Walpole,  Horace,  64 
Wardrobe,  10,  107,  no 
Ware,  Great  bed  of,  158 
Watteau,  52,  53,  57,  58,  191,  200 
Wave-scroll,  2 
Wedgwood,  78,  142 
Weisweiller,  A.,  73 
Wheeler,  O.  G.,  quoted,  104, 119, 120, 

136, 137, 188 
Wilkes,  John,  64 
William  III.  (of  Orange),  54,  119 

bed  of,  162 
Winant,  70,  145 
Window  slools,  203 


Windsor  Castle,  50 

chair,  189,  209,  210 
Winckelmann,  68 
Wine-cooler,  125 
Woods,  I,  3,  22,  24,  34,  83-4 

colored,io,  II,  12, 13,  26,30, 128, 243 

exotic,  130,  139,  217 
Wotton,  Sir  Henry,  34 
Wreaths,  75 

Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  34,  54 
Writing-desk,  146-7,  148 

X-shaped  chair,  180,  185 
legs,  208 

Yew,  24 
York  House,  91 
York  Minster,  105 
Ypres  Cathedral,  100 

Zig-zag,  2 
Zucchi,  74,  75 
Zwiener,  146 


273 


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